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Economics 303Y1: Economic History of Modern Europe to 1914
Prof. John H. Munro munro5@chass.utoronto.ca
Department of Economics john.munro@utoronto.ca
University of Toronto http://www.economics.utoronto.ca/munro5/
Economics 303Y1 Economic History of Modern Europe to 1914
Topic No. 4 (8):
The English Enclosure Movements and the Industrial Labour Supply, 1750-1830: The Social Costs of Agricultural Modernization
Within each of the following sections, all readings are listed in the chronological order of original publication, when that can be ascertained.
READINGS:
A. Enclosures and 'Depopulation': Expropriation, Dispossession, and the Labour Supply in the Past and Current Debate. See also Section E, below.
* 1. Karl Marx, Capital (English edition of 1887, translated and edited by Frederick Engels), Vol. I, Part viii: 'The So-Called Primitive Accumulation,' in the following chapters:
a) Chapter 26: 'The Secret of Primitive Accumulation,' pp. 713-16.
b) Chapter 27: 'Expropriation of the Agricultural Population from the Land,' pp. 717-33.
c) Chapter 28: 'Bloody Legislation Against the Expropriated, From the End of the 15th Century,' pp. 734-41.
d) Chapter 29: 'Genesis of the Capitalist Farmer,' pp. 744-49.
2. G. Slater, The English Peasantry and the Enclosures of Common Fields (London, 1907). A classic.
** 3. J.L. and Barbara Hammond, The Village Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1911; reissued New York, Harper Torchbooks, 1970) with an important new introduction by Eric Hobsbawm.
See Chapters 1 - 4, and 10 - 11 (all short), but especially Chapter 4, 'The Village After Enclosure,' pp. 73-81. This is perhaps the most eloquent expression of Fabian socialist interpretation of the agrarian changes during the Industrial Revolution era, indeed the classic socialist (if not truly Marxist) study of Enclosure. But, in view of so much subsequent research on this question since the 1911 publication, and in view of their obvious biases, read also Turner and Chambers or some other modern study as well.
4. Karl Polyani, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Times (London, 1944), Chapters 3-7.
5. M.W. Beresford, 'The Commissioners of Enclosure,' Economic History Review, 1st ser. 16 (1946), 130-40. Reprinted in:
a) W.E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, Vol. II (1968), 89-102;
b) Maurice Beresford, Time and Place: Collected Essays (London, 1984), pp. 123 - 33.
** 6. J.D. Chambers, 'Enclosure and the Labour Supply in the Industrial Revolution,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 5 (1953), 319-43. Reprinted in:
a) D.V. Glass and D.E.C. Eversley, eds., Population in History: Essays in Historical Demography (London, 1965), pp. 308 - 26.
b) E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815 (London, 1967), pp. 94-127.
c) Sima Lieberman, ed., Europe and the Industrial Revolution (New York, 1972), pp. 347 - 76.
This study remains the modern classic conservative or anti-Marxist view of the Enclosure Movements; but read at least one of the socialist/Marxist interpretations of Enclosure before you come to any firm conclusions.
7. V. M. Lavrovsky, 'The Expropriation of the English Peasantry in the Eighteenth Century,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 9 (1956), 271 - 82. Analysis by a Soviet Marxist historian.
8. J. Saville, Rural Depopulation in England and Wales, 1851 - 1951 (London, 1957).
* 9. George Mingay, 'The Agricultural Revolution in English History: A Reconsideration,' Agricultural History, 26 (1963), 123-33. Reprinted in:
a) W. E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, Vol. II (1968), pp. 9-28; and also
b) Charles K. Warner, ed., Agrarian Conditions in Modern European History (New York, 1966), pp. 60-78. (In shortened form)
10. E.L. Jones, 'The Agricultural Labour Market in England, 1793-1872,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 17 (1964), 322-38.
11. Arthur Redford, Labour Migration in England, 1800 - 1850, 2nd edn. (London, 1964).
12. Peter Laslett, The World We Have Lost (London, 1965), Chapters 3-5.
* 13. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London, 1965) Chapter 7: 'The Field Labourers', pp. 233-58.
14. J.D. Marshall, The Old Poor Law, 1795-1834, Studies in Economic History series (London, 1968). Short pamphlet.
** 15. George Mingay, Enclosure and the Small Farmer in the Age of the Industrial Revolution, Studies in Economic History series (London, 1968), pp. 9-32.
He contends that the chief period during which the 'small farmer' (as owner-occupier) was squeezed out, the period during which their numbers dwindled most rapidly, was the century prior to the Industrial Revolution. But that is an issue different from the dispossession of tenant-farmers (i.e. peasants) operating within an open-field regime of farming. See also his critique of the Hammonds in Mingay (1963).
* 16. E.J. Hobsbawm and George Rudé, Captain Swing (London, 1969), especially Part I, pp. 23-96.
This is a social history of the famous English agricultural uprising of 1830, 'The Last Labourers' Revolt.' See also section C, below.
17. E.J.T. Collins, 'Harvest Technology and the Labour Supply in Britain, 1790 - 1870,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 22 (1969).
18. E.J.T. Collins, 'Labour Supply and Demand in European Agriculture, 1800 - 1880,' in E.L. Jones and S.J. Woolf, eds., Agrarian Change and Economic Development (London, 1969).
19. L.J. White, 'Enclosures and Population Movements in England, 1700 - 1830,' Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, 2nd ser. 6 (1969).
20. Valerie Morgan, 'Agricultural Wage Rates in Late Eighteenth-Century Scotland,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 24 (1971).
* 21. B.D. Black and R.P. Thomas, 'The Enclosure Movement and the Supply of Labour During the Industrial Revolution,' Journal of European Economic History, 3 (1974), 401-23.
22. William Lazonick, 'Karl Marx and Enclosures in England,' Review of Radical Political Economics, 3 (1974), 1-32.
23. Jon S. Cohen and Martin Weitzman, 'A Mathematical Model of Enclosure,' in J. and W. Los, ed., Mathematical Models of Economics (Warsaw, 1974), pp. 419-31. Advanced micro theory and maths recommended for reading this essay, largely if not entirely focused on the Tudor-Stuart enclosures.
* 24. Jon Cohen and Martin Weitzman, 'A Marxian Model of Enclosures,' Journal of Development Economics, 1 (1975), 287-336.
This is largely, though not entirely, on the earlier Tudor-Stuart Enclosures; but their model can be applicable to the Industrial Revolution era as well. (1)
** 25. Jon S. Cohen and Martin L. Weitzman, 'Enclosure and Depopulation: A Marxian Analysis,' in William Parker and E. L. Jones, eds., European Peasants and Their Markets (Princeton, 1975), pp. 161-76.
26. Gordon Philpot, 'Enclosure and Population Growth in Eighteenth Century England,' Explorations in Economic History, 12 (Jan. 1975), 29-46.
* 27. Stefano Fenoaltea, 'On a Marxian Model of Enclosure,' Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1976), 195-8.
A critique of the Cohen and Weitzman essays above, followed by Jon Cohen and Martin Weitzman, 'Reply to Fenoaltea,' pp. 199-200.
* 28. Michael Turner, 'Parliamentary Enclosure and Population Change in England, 1750 - 1830,' and:
Gordon Philpot, 'Reply,' both in:
Explorations in Economic History, 13 (Oct. 1976), 463-72.
29. E. J. T. Collins, 'Migrant Labour in British Agriculture in the Nineteenth Century,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 29 (1976), 38-60.
** 30. N. F. R. Crafts, 'Enclosure and the Labor Supply Revisited,' Explorations in Economic History, 15 (Apr. 1978), 172 - 83.
31. R. A. Butlin, 'The Enclosure of Open Fields and Extinction of Common Rights in England, c. 1600 - 1750: A Review,' in H.S.A. Fox and R. A. Butlin, eds., Change in the Countryside: Essays on Rural England, 1500 - 1900 (London, 1979).
** 32. D. B. Grigg, Population Growth and Agrarian Change: An Historical Perspective (Cambridge, 1980), chapter 13, 'Breaking Out: England in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.'
* 33. N.F.R. Crafts, 'Income Elasticities of Demand and the Release of Labour by Agriculture during the British Industrial Revolution,' Journal of European Economic History, 9 (1980), 153-68.
* 34. Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., The Economic History of Britain Since 1700, Vol. I: 1700-1860 (Cambridge, 1981):
(a) E.L. Jones, 'Agriculture, 1700-80,' pp. 66-86.
(b) Glen Hueckel, 'Agriculture during Industrialization,' pp. 182-203.
(c) N.L. Tranter, 'The Labour Supply, 1780-1860,' pp. 204-26.
(d) M.E. Rose, 'Social Change and the Industrial Revolution,' pp. 253-75.
35. Osamu Saito, 'Labour Supply Behaviour of the Poor in the English Industrial Revolution,' Journal of European Economic History, 10 (1981), 633-52.
36. W. G. Armstrong, 'The Influence of Demographic Factors on the Position of the Agricultural Labourer in England and Wales, c. 1750 - 1914,' Agricultural History Review, 29 (1981).
37. K. D. M. Snell, 'Agricultural Seasonal Unemployment, the Standard of Living, and Women's Work in the South and East: 1690-1860,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 34 (1981), 407-37.
38. Ann Kussmaul, 'The Ambiguous Mobility of Farm Servants,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 34 (1981), 222-35.
39. Ann Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981).
* 40. Robert Allen, 'The Efficiency and Distributional Consequences of Eighteenth Century Enclosures,' The Economic Journal, 92 (Dec. 1982), 937 - 53.
** 41. Michael Turner, Enclosures in Britain, 1750 - 1830, Studies in Economic History Series (London, 1984), especially section 5, pp. 64-83.
* 42. E. A. Wrigley, 'Men on the Land and Men in the Countryside: Employment in Agriculture in Early Nineteenth-Century England,' in L. Bonfield et al, eds., The World We Have Gained (Oxford, 1985).
43. David Levine, 'Industrialization and the Proletarian Family in England,' Past and Present, no. 107 (May 1985), 204-26.
44. George Boyer, 'An Economic Model of the English Poor Law circa 1780-1834,' Explorations in Economic History, 22 (Apr. 1985), 129-67.
* 45. George Boyer, 'The Old Poor Law and the Agricultural Labor Market in Southern England: An Empirical Analysis,' The Journal of Economic History, 46 (Mar. 1986), 113-36.
46. George Boyer, 'The Poor Law, Migration, and Economic Growth,' The Journal of Economic History, 46 (1986), 419-40.
47. E. J. T. Collins, 'The Rationality of 'Surplus' Agricultural Labour: Mechanization in English Agriculture in the Nineteenth Century,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 36-46.
* 48. George E. Mingay, The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. VI: 1750 - 1850 (Cambridge University Press, 1989):
a) W. A. Armstrong, 'Labour I: Rural Population Growth, Systems of Employment, and Incomes,' pp. 641 - 728,
b) W. A. Armstrong and J. P. Huzel, 'Labour II: Food, Shelter and Self-Help, the Poor Law, and the Position of the Labourer in Rural Society,' pp. 729 - 835.
* 49. George W. Grantham and Carol Leonard, eds., Agrarian Organization in the Century of Industrialization, Supplement no. 5 of Research in Economic History, Paul Uselding general editor (London: JAI Press, 1989), Part I: Enclosures, Tenure, and Organization of Capital in Britain and Europe. Section i: Enclosure and Agricultural Productivity in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century England:
a) George Grantham, 'General Introduction.'
b) George Mingay, 'Agricultural Productivity and Agricultural Society in Eighteenth-Century England.'
c) Michael Turner, 'Benefits But at Cost: the Debates About Parliamentary Enclosure.'
d) Robert Allen, 'Enclosure and Agricultural Productivity, 1750 - 1850.'
e) J.M. Neeson, 'Parliamentary Enclosure and the Disappearance of the English Peasantry, Revisited.'
50. Jane Humphries, 'Enclosures, Common Rights, and Women: The Proletarianization of Families in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries,' Journal of Economic History, 50 (March 1990), 1 - 16.
51. John R. Walton, 'On Estimating the Extent of Parliamentary Enclosure,' The Agricultural History Review, 38 (1990), 79-82.
52. Reay Barry, The Last Rising of the Agricultural Labourers: Rural Life and Protest in Nineteenth-Century England, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
53. B. A. Holderness and Michael Turner, eds., Land, Labour, and Agriculture, 1720 - 1920: Essays for Gordon Mingay (London: The Hambledon Press, 1991).
* 54. Gregory Clark, 'Agriculture and the Industrial Revolution, 1700 - 1850,'in Joel Mokyr, ed., The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Pespective (Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 227 - 266.
55. J. M. Neeson, Common Right, Enclosure and Social Change in England, 1700 - 1820, Past and Present Publications (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
56. Robert Allan, 'Agriculture During the Industrial Revolution,' in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., The Economic History of Britain Since 1700, 3 vols., 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), Volume 1: 1700 - 1860, pp. 96-122.
57. Alun Howkins, 'Peasants, Servants, and Labourers: the Marginal Workforce in British Agriculture, c. 1870 - 1914,' Agricultural History Review, 42:i (1994), 49-62.
58. Richard Anthony, 'Farm Servant vs Agricultural Labourer, 1870 - 1914: A Commentary on Howkins,'Agricultural History Review, no. 43:1 (1995), 61-64.
59. Alun Howkins, 'Farm Servant vs Agricultural Labourer, 1870-1914: A Reply to Richard Anthony,' Agricultural History Review, no. 43:i (1995), 65-66.
60. John Chapman and Sylvia Seeliger, 'Formal Agreements and the Enclosure Process: The Evidence from Hampshire,' Agricultural History Review, 43:i (1995), 35-46.
61. Boaz Moselle, 'Allotments, Enclosure, and Proletarianization in Early Nineteenth-Century Southern England,' The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 48:3 (August 1995), 482-500.
62. Edward Higgs, 'Occupational Censuses and the Agricultural Workforce in Victorian England and Wales,' The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 48:4 (Nov. 1995), 700-16.
* 63. Joyce Burnette, 'Testing for Occupational Crowding in Eighteenth-Century British Agriculture,' Explorations in Economic History, 33:3 (July 1996), 319-45.
64. Stephen Caunce, 'Farm Servants and the Development of Capitalism in English Agriculture,' Agricultural History Review, 45:1 (1997), 49-60.
65. Kenneth L. Sokoloff and David Dollar, "Agricultural Seasonality and the Organization of Manufacturing in Early Industrial Economies: The Contrasts Between England and the United States," Journal of Economic History, 57:2 (June 1997), 288-321.
* 66. Gregory Clark and Ysbrand Van der Werf, 'Work in Progress? The Industrious Revolution,' Journal of Economic History, 58:3 (September 1998), 830-43. Concerns the productivity of agricultural labour over the centuries up to the Industrial-Agricultural Revolution era.
67. Byung Khun Song, 'Landed Interest, Local Government, and the Labour Market in England, 1750 - 1850,' The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 51:3 (August 1998), 465-88.
68. Joyce Burnette, "Labourers at the Oakes: Changes in the Demand for Female Day-Laborers at a Farm Near Sheffield during the Agricultural Revolution," Journal of Economic History, 59:1 (March 1999): 41-67.
* 69. Pamela Sharpe, 'The Female Labour Market in English Agriculture during the Industrial Revolution: Expansion or Contraction?', Agricultural History Review, 47:2 (1999), 161-81.
* 70. Donald Woodward, 'Early Modern Servants in Husbandry Revisited', Agricultural History Review, 48:ii (2000), 141-50.
71. A.J. Gritt, 'The Census and the Servant: A Reassesment of the Decline and Distribution of Farm Service in Early Nineteenth-Century England', The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 53:1 (February 2000),84-106.
B. Debates about The Causes, Nature, and Forms of English Enclosures, 1750-1830: 'Capturing the Economic Rent,' Responses to Relative Price Changes, and 'Improving Landlords'
1. E.M. Leonard, 'The Inclosure of the Common Fields in the Seventeenth Century,' Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, new series, 19 (1905). Reprinted in E.M. Carus-Wilson, ed., Essays in Economic History, Vol. II (London, 1962), pp. 227-256. Another classic study worth reading.
2. E.C.K. Gonner, Common Land and Inclosure, (London, 1921; reissued 1966). A very old, but classic study, reissued with an interesting introduction on enclosure by George Mingay in the reissue.
3. W.H.R. Curtler, The Enclosure and Redistribution of Our Land (Oxford, 1922). Another classic; still a useful survey.
4. V.M. Lavrovsky, 'Parliamentary Enclosure in the County of Suffolk, 1797-1814,' Economic History Review, 1st ser. 7 (1937).
5. J.D. Chambers, 'Enclosure and the Small Landowner,' Economic History Review, 1st ser. 10 (1940).
6. W. E. Tate, 'Opposition to Parliamentary Enclosure in Eighteenth Century England,' Agricultural History, 19 (1945).
7. M.W. Beresford, 'The Commissioners of Enclosure,' Economic History Review, 1st ser. 16 (1946), 130-40. Reprinted in:
a) Walter E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, 2 vols. (Newton Abbott, 1968), Vol. II, pp. 89-102;
b) Maurice Beresford, Time and Place: Collected Essays (London, 1984), pp. 123 - 33.
8. W.E. Tate, 'The Cost of Parliamentary Enclosure in England, with Special Reference to the County of Oxford,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 5 (1952-3).
9. H.G. Hunt, 'The Chronology of Parliamentary Enclosure in Leicestershire,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 10 (1957-8).
10. H.G. Hunt, 'Landownership and Enclosure, 1750-1830,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 11 (1958-9).
* 11. G.E. Mingay, 'The Agricultural Revolution in English History: A Reconsideration,' Agricultural History, 26 (1963), 123-33. Reprinted in W.E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, Vol. II (1968), pp. 9-28.
12. R.A.C. Parker, Enclosures in the Eighteenth Century, (London, 1963).
13. J.M. Martin, 'The Cost of Parliamentary Enclosure in Warwickshire,' University of Birmingham Historical Journal, 9 (1964). Reprinted in E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815, Debates in Economic History series (London: Methuen, 1967), pp. 128-51.
14. Brian Loughbrough, 'An Account of a Yorkshire Enclosure: Staxton, 1803,' Agricultural History Review, 13 (1965).
* 15. J. D. Chambers and George E. Mingay, The Agricultural Revolution, 1750-1880 (London, 1966), Chapter 4, 'Enclosure,' pp. 77-105.
16. J. M. Martin, 'Landownership and the Land Tax Returns,' Agricultural History Review, 14 (1966).
17. J. M. Martin, 'The Parliamentary Enclosure Movement and Rural Society in Warwickshire,' Agricultural History Review, 15 (1967).
18. W. E. Tate, The English Village Community and the Enclosure Movement (London, 1967).
* 19. E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815, Debates in Economic History series (London: Methuen, 1967), pp.
* a) E.L. Jones, 'Introduction,' pp. 1-48.
b) Lord Ernle, 'Obstacles to Progress,' pp. 49-65. [Reprinted from his The Land and its People (London: Hutchinson, 1925), chapter III.]
c) Peter Mathias, 'Agriculture and the Brewing and Distilling Industries in the Eighteenth Century,' pp. 80-93. [Reprinted from Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 5 (1952). ]
d) J.D. Chambers, 'Enclosure and the Labour Supply in the Industrial Revolution,' pp. 94-127. [Reprinted from Economic History Review, 2nd ser. V (1953), 319-43.]
e) J.M. Martin, 'The Cost of Parliamentary Enclosure in Warwickshire,' pp. 128-51. [Reprinted from University of Birmingham Historical Journal, 9 (1964).]
f) E.L. Jones, 'Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1660-1750: Agricultural Change,' pp. 152-71. [Reprinted from Journal of Economic History, 25 (1965), 1-18.]
g) A.H. John, 'Agricultural Productivity and Economic Growth in England, 1700 - 1760,' pp. 172-93. With a postscript (pp. 189-93) added for this volume. [Reprinted Journal of Economic History, 25 (1965), 19-34.]
* 20. George E. Mingay, Enclosure and the Small Farmer in the Age of the Industrial Revolution (Studies in Economic History series, London, 1968), pp. 9-32.
21. E.L. Jones, 'The Agricultural Origins of Industry,' Past & Present, no. 40 (1968).
22. J. G. Brewer, Enclosures and Open Fields: A Bibliography (1972).
** 23. Donald N. McCloskey, 'The Enclosure of Open Fields: Preface to a Study of its Impact on the Efficiency of English Agriculture in the Eighteenth Century,' Journal of Economic History, 32 (1972), 15-35.
24. Michael Turner, 'The Cost of Parliamentary Enclosure in Buckinghamshire,' Agricultural History Review, 21 (1973).
25. Michael Turner, 'Parliamentary Enclosure and Landownership Change in Buckinghamshire,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 38 (1975), 565-81.
* 26. D. N. McCloskey, 'The Economics of Enclosure: A Market Analysis,' and 'The Persistence of English Common Fields,' in: W.N. Parker and E.L. Jones, ed., European Peasants and their Markets: Essays in Agrarian Economic History (Princeton, 1975), pp. 123-60, and 92-120, respectively.
27. Donald N. McCloskey, 'English Open Fields as Behaviour Towards Risk,' Research in Economic History, 1 (1976), 124-70.
28. J.A. Yelling, Common Field and Enclosure in England, 1450-1850 (London, 1977), Chapters 9-10: 'Enclosure and Farming Systems,' pp. 174-213. Unfortunately each of the 11 chapters covers the entire four-century period.
* 29. N.F.R. Crafts, 'Determinants of the Rate of Parliamentary Enclosure,' Explorations in Economic History, 14 (1977), 227-49.
30. Michael Turner, 'Enclosure Commissioners and Buckinghamshire Parliamentary Enclosure,' Agricultural History Review, 25 (1977).
* 31. Peter Linneman, 'An Econometric Examination of the English Parliamentary Enclosure Movement,' Explorations in Economic History, 15 (April 1978), 221-28.
32. Jack J. Purdum, 'Profitability and Timing of Parliamentary Land Enclosures,' Explorations in Economic History, 15 (1978), 313-26.
33. J. M. Martin, 'The Small Landowners and Parliamentary Enclosure in Warwickshire,' Economic History Review 2nd ser. 32 (1979), 328-43.
34. J. M. Martin, 'Members of Parliament and Enclosure: A Reconsideration,' Agricultural History Review, 27 (1979).
35. B. D. Baack, 'The Development of Exclusive Property Rights to Land in England: An Exploratory Essay,' Economy and History, 32 (1979).
36. Michael Turner, English Parliamentary Enclosure: Its Historical Geography and Economic History (Hamden, 1980).
37. Michael Turner, 'Cost, Finance, and Parliamentary Enclosure,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 34 (1981), 236-48.
38. J.R. Wordie, 'Rent Movements and the English Tenant Farmer, 1700-1839,' Research in Economic History, 6 (1981).
* 39. J.R. Wordie, 'The Chronology of English Enclosure, 1500-1914,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 36 (1983), pp. 483-505.
A most provocative thesis on English enclosures, contending that the major period of enclosures was not the Tudor era of the late 15th and 16th centuries, nor the Industrial Revolution era of the 18th, early 19th centuries, but the 'in between' period of the 17th century -- traditionally viewed as an era of few enclosures.
40. John Chapman, 'The Chronology of English Enclosure,' and:
J. R. Wordie, 'The Chronology of English Enclosure: A Reply,' both in
Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 37 (Nov. 1984), 557-59, 560-62.
** 41. Michael Turner, Enclosures in Britain, 1750 - 1830 (Studies in Economic History Series, London, 1984), sections 1 - 4, pp. 11 - 63.
42. J.M. Neeson, 'The Opponents of Enclosure in Eighteenth-Century Northamptonshire,' Past and Present, No.105 (November 1984), 114-39.
43. A. G. Parton, 'Parliamentary Enclosure in Nineteenth-Century Surrey: Some Perspectives on the Evaluation of Land Potential,' Agricultural History Review, 33 (1985), 51-8.
44. Brinley Thomas, 'Food Supply in the United Kingdom during the Industrial Revolution,' in Joel Mokyr, ed., The Economics of the Industrial Revolution (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1985), pp. 137 - 50.
45. John Chapman, 'The Extent and Nature of Parliamentary Enclosures,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 25-35.
46. David Grigg, 'Farm Size in England and Wales, from Early Victorian Times to the Present,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 179 - 90.
47. E. L. Jones, 'Enclosure, Land Improvement, and the Price of Capital: A Comment,' Explorations in Economic History, 27 (July 1990), 350-55.
48. Gregory Clark, 'Enclosure, Land Improvement, and the Price of Capital: A Reply to Jones,' Explorations in Economic History, 27 (July 1990), 356-62.
49. Ann Kussmaul, A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538 - 1840, Cambridge Studies in Population, Economy, and Society in Past Time no. 11 (Cambridge University Press, 1990).
50. John Chapman, 'The Later Parliamentary Enclosures of South Wales,' Agricultural History Review, 39:ii (1991), 116-25.
51. Eric Kerridge, The Common Fields of England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992).
52. Robert C. Allen, Enclosure and the Yeoman: The Agricultural Development of the South Midlands, 1450 - 1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
53. Susan Neave, 'Rural Settlement Contraction in the East Riding of Yorkshire Between the Mid-Seventeenth and Mid-Eighteenth Centuries,' Agricultural History Review, 41:2 (1993), 124-36.
54. Graham Rogers, 'Custom and Common Right: Waste Land Enclosure and Social Change in West Lancashire,' Agricultural History Review, 41:2 (1993), 137-54.
55. Jennifer R. Baker, 'Tithe Rent-Charge and the Measurement of Agricultural Production in Mid-Nineteenth Century England and Wales,' Agricultural History Review, 41:2 (1993), 169-75.
56. Michael Turner, 'Common Property and Property in Common,' Agricultural History Review, 42:ii (1994), 158-62.
57. Christian Petersen, Bread and the British Economy, c1700-1870 (Aldershot, Hampshire: Scolar Press, 1995).
57. David Eastwood, 'Communities, Protest and Police in early Nineteenth-Century Oxfordshire: The Enclosure of Otmoor Reconsidered,' Agricultural History Review, 44:1 (1996), 35-46.
58. Alon Kadish, ed., The Corn Laws: The Formation of Popular Economics in Britain, 6 vols. (London: Pickering and Chatto, 1996).
* 59. George E. Mingay, Parliamentary Enclosure in England: An Introduction to its Causes, Incidence, and Impact, 1750 - 1850 (London: Longman, 1997).
60. Michael E. Turner, J.V. Beckett, and B. Afton, Agricultural Rent in England, 1690 - 1914 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
61. Gregory Clark, 'Renting the Revolution,' Journal of Economic History, 58:1 (March 1998), 206-10. A review article based on M.E. Turner, J.V. Beckett, and Bethanie Afton, Agricultural Rent in England, 1690 - 1914 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997). For the reply, see Michael Turner, John Beckett, and Bethanie Afton, 'Renting the Revolution: A Reply to Clark,' Journal of Economic History, 58:1 (March 1998), 211-14.
* 62. Gregory Clark, 'Commons Sense: Common Property Rights, Efficiency, and Institutional Change,' Journal of Economic History, 58:1 (March 1998), 73-102.
63. Susanna Wade Martins and Tom Williamson, 'The Development of the Lease and its Role in the Agricultural Improvement in East Anglia, 1660 - 1870,' Agricultural History Review, 46:ii (1998), 127-41.
64. John Chapman, 'Charities, Rents, and Enclosure: A Comment on Clark,' Journal of Economic History, 59:2 (June 1999), 447-50.
65. Gregory Clark, 'In Defense of 'Commons Sense': Reply to Chapman,' Journal of Economic History, 59:2 (June 1999), 451-55.
66. Sara Birtles, 'Common Land, Poor Relief and Enclosure: The Use of Manorial Resources in Fulfilling Parish Obligations, 1601-1834', Past & Present, no. 165 (November 1999), 74-106.
67. John Broad, 'Housing the Rural Poor in Southern England, 1650 - 1850', Agricultural History Review, 48:ii (2000), 151-70.
68. H.R. French, 'Urban Agriculture, Commons and Commoners in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: the Case of Sudbury, Suffolk', Agricultural History Review, 48:ii (2000), 171-99.
69. Susanna Wade Martins and Tom Williamson, Roots of Change: Farming and the Landscape in East Anglia, c.1700 - 1870, Agricultural History Review Supplement Series no. 2 (1999).
C. 'The Agricultural Revolution' of 1650-1840: Enclosures and Technological Change
I. Textbook Surveys of Agrarian Change and Industrialization:
1. John H. Clapham, Economic History of Modern Britain, Vol. I (London, 1926), Chapter 4; Vol. II (1932), Chapter 7.
2. T.S. Ashton, Economic History of England: The Eighteenth Century (London, 1955), Chapter 2, pp. 30-62.
3. T.S. Ashton, Economic Fluctuations in England, 1700-1800 (Oxford, 1959), Chapter 2, pp. 27-48.
4. Phyllis Deane and W.A. Cole, British Economic Growth, 1688-1959 (Cambridge, 1960), pp. 62-74, 99-136, 140-7, 155-80.
5. Phyllis Deane, The First Industrial Revolution (Cambridge, 1965), Chapter 3: 'The Agricultural Revolution', pp. 36-50.
6. E.J. Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire: An Economic History of Great Britain from 1750 to the Present Day (London, 1968). Chapter 5: 'Agriculture, 1750-1850,' pp. 97-108 (Marxist approach).
7. Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation: An Economic History of Britain, 1700-1914 (London, 1969; 2nd rev. edn., London, 1983), Chapter 3.
8. J.D. Chambers, Population, Economy, and Society in Pre- Industrial England (Oxford, 1972): chapters 5 and 6.
9. David Grigg, The Transformation of Agriculture in the West (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992).
II. Specialized Studies:
1. Lord Ernle, English Farming Past and Present (1st edn., London, 1912; 6th edn. London, 1961, ed. G.E. Fussell and O.R. McGregor).
2. Lord Ernle, 'Obstacles to Progress,' in his The Land and its People (London: Hutchinson, 1925), chapter III. Reprinted in E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815, Debates in Economic History series (London: Methuen, 1967), pp. 49-65.
3. R. V. Lennard, 'English Agriculture under Charles II,' Economic History Review, 1st ser., 4 (1932), 23-45. Reprinted in Walter E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, 2 vols. (Newton Abbott, 1968), Vol. I, pp. 161-86.
4. Peter Mathias, 'Agriculture and the Brewing and Distilling Industries in the Eighteenth Century,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 5 (1952). Reprinted in E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815, Debates in Economic History series (London: Methuen, 1967), pp. 80-93.
5. W.E. Minchinton, 'Agricultural Returns and the Government during the Napoleonic Wars,' Agricultural History Review, 1 (1953), 29 - 43. Reprinted in Walter E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, 2 vols. (Newton Abbott, 1968), Vol. II, pp. 103-20.
* 6. G. E. Mingay, 'The Agricultural Depression, 1730-1750,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 8 (1956), reprinted in E.M. Carus-Wilson, ed., Essays in Economic History, Vol. II (London, 1962), pp. 309-26.
7. R. Trow-Smith, A History of British Livestock Husbandry, 1700 - 1900 (London, 1959).
8. A.H. John, 'The Course of Agricultural Change, 1660 - 1760,' in L.S. Presnell, ed., Studies in the Industrial Revolution (London, 1960), pp. 125-55. Reprinted in Walter E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, 2 vols. (Newton Abbott, 1968), Vol. I, pp. 221-53.
9. J.D. Gould, 'Agricultural Fluctuations and the English Economy in the Eighteenth Century,' Journal of Economic History, 22 (1962), 313- .
* 10. G.E. Mingay, 'The Agricultural Revolution in English History: A Reconsideration,' Agricultural History, 26 (1963), 123-33. Reprinted in W.E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, Vol. II (1968), pp. 9-28.
* 11. E.L. Jones, 'Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1660-1750: Agricultural Change,' Journal of Economic History, 25 (1965), 1-18. Reprinted in:
a) E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815, Debates in Economic History series (London: Methuen, 1967), pp. 152-71.
b) Walter E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, 2 vols. (Newton Abbott, 1968), Vol. I, pp. 203-20.
* 12. A.H. John, 'Agricultural Productivity and Economic Growth in England, 1700-1760,' Journal of Economic History, 25 (1965), 19-34. Reprinted in E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815, Debates in Economic History series (London: Methuen, 1967), pp. 172-93. With a postscript (pp. 189-93) added in 1967 for this volume.
13. D. B. Grigg, The Agricultural Revolution in South Lincolnshire (London, 1966).
14. George E. Fussell, The English Dairy Farmer, 1500 - 1900 (London, 1966).
* 15. J.D. Chambers and G.E. Mingay, The Agricultural Revolution, 1750-1880 (London, 1966). See also the later edition of Mingay (1977).
16. E.H. Hunt, 'Labour Productivity in English Agriculture, 1850-1914,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 20 (1967).
17. Eric Kerridge, The Agricultural Revolution (London, 1967). Very largely on the pre-1750 era, arguing that the 'agricultural revolution' began in Tudor-Stuart England.
18. E.L. Jones and G.E. Mingay, eds., Land, Labour, and Population in the Industrial Revolution: Essays Presented to J.D. Chambers (London, 1967):
(a) A.H. John, 'Farming in Wartime, 1793-1815,' pp. 28-47.
(b) D.C. Barnett, 'Allotments and Problem of Rural Poverty,' 162-86.
19. N. Riches, The Agricultural Revolution in Norfolk, 2nd edn. (London, 1967).
* 20. E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815, Debates in Economic History series (London: Methuen, 1967), pp.
* a) E.L. Jones, 'Introduction,' pp. 1-48.
b) Lord Ernle, 'Obstacles to Progress,' pp. 49-65. [Reprinted from his The Land and its People (London: Hutchinson, 1925), chapter III.]
c) Peter Mathias, 'Agriculture and the Brewing and Distilling Industries in the Eighteenth Century,' pp. 80-93. [Reprinted from Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 5 (1952). ]
d) J.D. Chambers, 'Enclosure and the Labour Supply in the Industrial Revolution,' pp. 94-127. [Reprinted from Economic History Review, 2nd ser. V (1953), 319-43.]
e) J.M. Martin, 'The Cost of Parliamentary Enclosure in Warwickshire,' pp. 128-51. [Reprinted from University of Birmingham Historical Journal, 9 (1964).]
f) E.L. Jones, 'Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1660-1750: Agricultural Change,' pp. 152-71. [Reprinted from Journal of Economic History, 25 (1965), 1-18.]
g) A.H. John, 'Agricultural Productivity and Economic Growth in England, 1700 - 1760,' pp. 172-93. With a postscript (pp. 189-93) added for this volume. [Reprinted from Journal of Economic History, 25 (1965), 19-34.]
21. E.L. Jones, The Development of English Agriculture, 1815-1873 (Studies in Economic History series, London, 1968).
22. F.M.L. Thompson, 'The Second Agricultural Revolution, 1815-1880,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 21 (1968), 62-77.
* 23. A. H. John, 'The Agricultural Origins of Industry,' Past and Present, no. 40 (1968), 58 - 71.
24. W. E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, 2 vols. (Newton Abbot, 1968). Especially:
(a) M.A. Havinden, 'Agricultural Progress in Open-Field Oxfordshire,' pp. 147-60. [Reprinted from Agricultural History Review, 9 (1961), 73-83.]
(b) R.V. Lennard, 'English Agriculture Under Charles II,' pp. 161-87. [Reprinted from Economic History Review, 1st ser., 4 (1932), 23-45.]
(c) H.J. Habakkuk, 'Economic Functions of English Landowners in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,' pp. 187-202. [Reprinted from Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, VI (1953), 92-102.]
(d) E.L. Jones, 'Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1660-1750: Agricultural Change,' Vol. I, pp. 203-20. [Reprinted from The Journal of Economic History, 23 (12965), 1-18.]
(e) A.H. John, 'The Course of Agricultural Change, 1660-1760,' Vol. I, pp. 221-53. [Reprinted from L.S. Presnell, ed., Studies in the Industrial Revolution (London, 1960), pp. 125-55.]
(f) G.E. Mingay, 'The Agricultural Revolution in English History: A Reconsideration,' Vol. II, pp. 9-28. [Reprinted from Agricultural History, 26 (1963), 123-33.]
(g) M.W. Beresford, 'The Commissioners of Enclosure,' Vol. II, pp. 89-102. [Reprinted from Economic History Review, 1st ser., 16 (1946), 130-40.]
(h) W.E. Minchinton, 'Agricultural Returns and the Government during the Napoleonic Wars,' Vol. II, pp. 103-20. [Reprinted from Agricultural History Review, 1 (1953), 130-40.]
25. E.J.T. Collins, 'Harvest Technology and the Labour Supply in Britain, 1790 - 1870,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 22 (1969).
26. B. A. Holderness, 'Capital Formation in Agriculture, 1750 - 1850,' in J. P. P. Higgins and Sidney Pollards, eds., Aspects of Capital Investment in Great Britain, 1750 - 1850 (1969; 2nd edn. 1971).
27. B. A. Holderness, 'Landlords' Capital Formation in East Anglia, 1750 - 1870,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 25 (1972).
28. E.J.T. Collins, 'The Diffusion of the Threshing Machine in Britain, 1790 - 1880,' Tools and Tillage, 2 (1972).
29. J. A. Yelling, 'Changes in Crop Production in East Worcestershire, 1540 - 1867,' Agricultural History Review, 21 (1973).
30. H. C. Darby, 'The Age of the Improver: 1600-1800,' in H. C. Darby, ed., A New Historical Geography of England (London, 1973).
31. E. L. Jones, Agriculture and the Industrial Revolution (New York, 1974).
32. R.A. Ippolito, 'The Effect of the `Agricultural Depression' on Industrial Demand in England: 1730-1750,' Economica, 42 (1975), 298-311.
33. George Mingay, ed., Arthur Young and His Times (London, 1975), Chapter 2, 'The Agricultural Revolution,' and Chapter 3, 'Enclosure and Rural Property.'
* 34. Glenn Hueckel, 'Relative Prices and Supply Response in English Agriculture during the Napoleonic Wars,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 29 (1976), 401-14.
35. R.A. Dodshon, 'The Economics of Sheep Farming in the Southern Uplands during the Age of Improvement, 1750-1833,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 29 (1976), 551-84.
36. A. H. John, 'English Agricultural Improvement and Grain Exports, 1660 - 1765,' in D. C. Coleman and A. H. John, eds., Trade, Government, and Economy in Pre-Industrial England: Essays Presented to F. J. Fisher (London, 1976), pp. 45 - 67.
* 37. Patrick K. O'Brien, 'Agriculture and the Industrial Revolution,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 30 (1977), 166-81.
* 38. George E. Mingay, ed., The Agricultural Revolution: Changes in Agriculture, 1650 - 1880 (London, 1977).
39. Mark Overton, 'Estimating Crop Yields from Probate Inventories: An Example from East Anglia, 1585 - 1735,' The Journal of Economic History, 39 (June 1979), 363 - 78.
40. H.S.A. Fox and R. A. Butlin, eds., Change in the Countryside: Essays on Rural England, 1500 - 1900, IBG Special Publications no. X (London, 1979).
41. Stuart MacDonald, 'Agricultural Response to a Changing Market During the Napoleonic Wars,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 33 (1980), 59-86.
42. John Broad, 'Alternate Husbandry and Permanent Pasture in the Midlands, 1650 - 1800,' Agricultural History Review, 28 (1980).
* 43. G. Patrick H. Chorley, 'The Agricultural Revolution in Northern Europe, 1750-1880: Nitrogen, Legumes, and Crop Productivity,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 34 (1981), 71-93.
* 44. Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, ed., The Economic History of Britain Since 1700, Vol. I: 1700-1860 (Cambridge, 1981):
(a) E.L. Jones, 'Agriculture, 1700-80,' pp. 66-86.
(b) G. Hueckel, 'Agriculture during Industrialization,' pp. 182-203.
45. J. V. Beckett, 'Regional Variation and the Agricultural Depression, 1730-50,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 35 (Feb. 1982), 35-51.
46. Robert Allen, 'The Efficiency and Distributional Consequences of Eighteenth Century Enclosures,' The Economic Journal, 92 (Dec. 1982), 937-53.
** 47. Michael Turner, 'Agricultural Productivity in England in the Eighteenth Century: Evidence from Crop Yields,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 35 (1982), 389-510.
48. Joan Thirsk, 'Plough and Pen: Agricultural Writers in the Seventeenth Century,' in T. H. Aston, P. R. Coss, C. Dyer, Joan Thirsk, eds., Social Relations and Ideas: Essays in Honour of R. H. Hilton (Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 295 - 318.
49. Michael Turner, Enclosures in Britain, 1750 - 1830 (London, 1984), pp. 37-52.
* 50. Mark Overton, 'Agricultural Revolution? Development of the Agrarian Economy in Early-Modern England,' in A. R. H. Baker and D. J. Gregory, eds., Explorations in Historical Geography: Interpretative Essays (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 118-39.
* 51. Mark Overton, 'Agricultural Productivity in Eighteenth- Century England: Some Further Speculations,' and:
Michael Turner, 'Agricultural Productivity in Eighteenth-Century England: Further Strains of Speculation', both in:
Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 37 (May 1984), 244-51, 252-57.
52. Richard L. Sullivan, 'Measurement of English Farming Technological Change, 1523-1900,' Explorations in Economic History, 21 (July 1984), 270-89.
53. Joan Thirsk, The Rural Economy of England (London: Hambledon Press, 1984). Collected essays on agrarian history.
* 54. Joan Thirsk, ed., The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. V: 1640 - 1750, Part I:Regional Farming Systems (Cambridge University Press, 1984).
* 55. Joan Thirsk, ed., The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. V: 1640 - 1750, Part II: Agrarian Change (Cambridge University Press, 1985). See especially:
(a) Peter Bowden, 'Agricultural Prices, Wages, Farm Profits, and Rents,' pp. 1 - 118.
(b) Joan Thirsk, 'Agricultural Innovations and their Diffusion,' pp. 533 - 89.
56. Richard L. Sullivan, 'The Timing and Pattern of Technological Development in English Agriculture, 1611 - 1850,' Journal of Economic History, 45 (June 1985), 305-14.
57. David Ormrod, English Grain Exports and the Structure of Agrarian Capitalism, 1700 - 1760 (Hull, 1985).
58. N. F. R. Crafts, British Economic Growth during the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1985).
** 59. Ann Kussmaul, 'Agrarian Change in Seventeenth-Century England: The Economic Historian as Paleontologist,' Journal of Economic History, 45 (March 1985), 1 - 30.
60. E. Anthony Wrigley, 'Urban Growth and Agricultural Change: England and the Continent in the Early Modern Period,' Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 15 (Spring 1985), 683-728.
61. Ann Kussmaul, 'Time and Space, Hoofs and Grain: The Seasonality of Marriage in England,' Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 15 (Spring 1985), 755 - 79.
* 62. Patrick K. O'Brien, 'Agriculture and the Home Market for English Industry, 1660-1820,' English Historical Review, 100 (1985), 773-800.
* 63. R. V. Jackson, 'Growth and Deceleration in English Agriculture, 1660 - 1790,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 38 (August 1985), 333-351.
64. Mark Overton, 'The Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations in Early-Modern England: Turnips and Clover in Norfolk and Suffolk, 1580 - 1740,' Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, new series, 10 (1985), 205-21.
** 65. Michael Turner, 'English Open Fields and Enclosures: Retardation or Productivity Improvements?' Journal of Economic History, 46 (Sept. 1986), 669 - 92.
* 66. Mark Overton, 'Depression or Revolution? English Agriculture, 1640-1750,' Journal of British Studies, 25 (1986), 344-52.
67. Michael Havinden, 'Evolution or Revolution? Agriculture's Critical Period, 1640-1750,' Journal of Historical Geography, 12 (1986), 204-10.
* 68. R. B. Outhwaite, 'Progress and Backwardness in English Agriculture, 1500-1650,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 39 (Feb. 1986), 1-18. Very important for the background to the post-1650 changes.
69. R. B. Outhwaite, 'English Agricultural Efficiency from the Mid-Seventeenth Century: Causes and Costs,' Historical Journal, 30 (1987), 201-09.
70. Gregory Clark, 'Productivity Growth without Technical Change in European Agriculture Before 1850,' Journal of Economic History, 47 (June 1987), 419-32.
71. G. G. S. Bowie, 'New Sheep for Old: Changes in Sheep Farming in Hampshire, 1792-1879,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 15-24.
72. E. A. Wrigley, 'Early Modern Agriculture: A New Harvest Gathered In,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 65-71. Review of Thirsk, ed., Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. V (1985).
73. H. J. Habakkuk, 'The Agrarian History of England and Wales: Regional Farming Systems and Agrarian Change, 1640 - 1750,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 40 (May 1987), 281-95. Also a review of Thirsk, ed., Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. V (1985).
74. G. G. Bowie, 'Watermeadows in Wessex: A Re-evaluation for the Period 1640 - 1850,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 151-58. On 'floating-meadows,' or artificial irrigation.
75. E. J. T. Collins, 'The Rationality of `Surplus' Agricultural Labour: Mechanization in English Agriculture in the Nineteenth Century,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 36-46.
* 76. Joan Thirsk, England's Agricultural Regions and Agrarian History, 1500 - 1750, Studies in Economic and Social History series (London, 1987).
* 77. Robert C. Allen, 'The Growth of Labor Productivity in Early Modern English Agriculture,' Explorations in Economic History, 25 (April 1988), 117-46.
78. Robert C. Allen and Cormac O Grada, 'On the Road Again with Arthur Young: English, Irish, and French Agriculture during the Industrial Revolution,' Journal of Economic History, 48 (March 1988), 93 - 116.
* 79. Robert C. Allen, 'Inferring Yields from Probate Inventories,' Journal of Economic History, 48 (March 1988), 117-25.
80. Paul Glennie, 'Continuity and Change in Hertfordshire Agriculture, 1550-1700: I - Patterns of Agricultural Production,' Agricultural History Review, 36 (1988), 55-75.
81. Paul Glennie, 'Continuity and Change in Hertfordshire Agriculture, 1550 - 1700, II: Trends in Crop Yields and their Determinants,' The Agricultural History Review, 36 (1988), 145 - 61.
** 82. George E. Mingay, ed., The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. VI: 1750 - 1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989):
(a) G. E. Mingay, 'Introduction,' pp. 1-6.
(b) Hugh Prince, 'The Changing Rural Landscape, 1750 - 1850,' pp. 7-83.
(c) B.A. Holderness, 'Prices, Productivity, and Output,' pp. 84-189.
(d) Richard Perren, 'Markets and Marketing,' pp. 190 - 274.
(e) G.E. Mingay, Jonathan Brown, H.A. Beecham, Raine Morgan, R.J. Moore-Colyer, Catherine Breeze, 'Farming Techniques: Arable Farming and Livestock,' pp. 275-360.
(f) Nicholas Goddard, 'Farming Techniques, III: Agricultural Literature and Societies,' pp. 361-383.
(g) E.J. Collins, Jennifer Tann, J.A. Chartres, L.A. Clarkson, Jonathan Brown, David Grace, 'The Agricultural Servicing and Processing Industries,' pp. 384-544.
(h) J.V. Beckett, 'Landownership and Estate Management,' pp. 545-640.
(i) W. A. Armstrong, 'Labour I: Rural Population Growth, Systems of Employment, and Incomes,' pp. 641-728.
(j) W.A. Armstrong and J.P. Huzel, 'Labour II: Food, Shelter and Self-Help, the Poor Law and the Position of the Labourer in Society,' pp. 729-835.
(k) J.H. Porter, 'The Development of Rural Society,' pp. 836-937.
(l) George E. Mingay, 'Conclusion: the Progress of Agriculture, 1750 - 1850,' pp. 938 - 71.
(m) A.H. John, 'Statistical Appendix,' pp. 972 - 1155.
83. Julian L. Simon and Richard J. Sullivan, 'Population Size, Knowledge Stock, and Other Determinants of Agricultural Publication and Patenting: England, 1541 - 1850,' Explorations in Economic History, 26 (January 1989), 21 - 44.
84. George Grantham, 'Agricultural Supply During the Industrial Revolution: French Evidence and European Implications,' Journal of Economic History, 49 (March 1989), 43 - 72.
85. Mark Overton, 'Weather and Agricultural Change in England, 1660 - 1739,' Agricultural History, 63 (Spring 1989), 77 - 88.
86. Andrew K. Copus, 'Changing Markets and the Development of Sheep Breeds in Southern England, 1750 - 1900,' The Agricultural History Review, 37 (1989), 36 - 51.
** 87. George W. Grantham and Carol Leonard, eds., Agrarian Organization in the Century of Industrialization, Supplement no. 5 of Research in Economic History, Paul Uselding general editor (London: JAI Press, 1989), in 2 parts.
Part I: Enclosures, Tenure, and Organization of Capital in Britain and Europe. Section i: Enclosure and Agricultural Productivity in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century England
(a) George Grantham, 'General Introduction.'
* (b) George Mingay, 'Agricultural Productivity and Agricultural Society in Eighteenth-Century England.'
* (c) Michael Turner, 'Benefits But at Cost: the Debates About Parliamentary Enclosure.'
* (d) Robert Allen, 'Enclosure and Agricultural Productivity, 1750 - 1850.'
(e) J.M. Neeson, 'Parliamentary Enclosure and the Disappearance of the English Peasantry, Revisited.'
Part I: Enclosures, Tenure, and Organization of Capital in Britain and Europe. Section ii: European Agriculture during Industrialization: Crises and Adjustments.
(a) F.M.L. Thompson, 'Rural Society and Agricultural Change in Nineteenth-Century Britain.'
(b) E.J.T. Collins, 'The `Machinery Question' in English Agriculture in the Nineteenth Century.'
88. Ann Kussmaul, A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538 - 1840, Cambridge Studies in Population, Economy, and Society in Past Time no. 11 (Cambridge University Press, 1990).
89. J.V. Beckett, The Agricultural Revolution, Historical Association pamphlets (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990).
90. C.G.S. Bowie, 'Northern Wolds and Wessex Downlands: Contrasts in Sheep Husbandry and Farming Practice, 1770 - 1850,' The Agricultural History Review, 38:ii (1990), 117 - 26.
91. Mark Overton, 'The Critical Century? The Agrarian History of England and Wales, 1750 - 1850,' The Agricultural History Review, 38:ii (1990), 185 -89. A review article of G. E. Mingay, ed., The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. VI: 1700 - 1850 (Cambridge University Press, 1989).
92. Günther Schmitt, 'Agriculture in XIXth Century France and Britain: Another Explanation of International and Intersectoral Productivity Differences,' Journal of European Economic History, 19 (Spring 1990), 91 - 115.
93. Gregory Clark, 'Labor Productivity and Farm Size in English Agriculture before Mechanization: A Note,' Explorations in Economic History, 28 (April 1991), 248 - 57.
** 94. Bruce M. S. Campbell and Mark Overton, eds., Land, Labour and Livestock: Historical Studies in European Agricultural Productivity (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1991).
a) Mark Overton and Bruce Campbell, 'Productivity Change in European Agricultural Development,' pp. 1 - 50.
b) Robert S. Shiel, 'Improving Soil Productivity in the Pre-Fertiliser Era,' pp. 51 - 77.
c) Bruce M.S. Campbell, 'Land, Labour, Livestock, and Productivity Trends in English Seigniorial Agriculture, 1208 - 1450,' pp. 144 - 82.
d) Gregory Clark, 'Labour Productivity in English Agriculture, 1300 - 1860,' pp. 211 - 35.
e) Robert C. Allen, 'The Two English Agricultural Revolutions, 1450 - 1850,' pp. 236 - 54.
f) Paul Glennie, 'Measuring Crop Yields in Early Modern England,' pp. 255 - 83.
g) Mark Overton, 'The Determinants of Crop Yields in Early Modern England,' pp. 284 - 322.
h) E. A. Wrigley, 'Energy Availability and Agricultural Productivity,' pp. 323 - 39.
95. Robert C. Allen, 'Labor Productivity and Farm Size in English Agriculture before Mechanization: Reply to Clark,' Explorations in Economic History, 28 (October 1991), 478-92.
96. Robert C. Allen, Enclosure and the Yeoman: The Agricultural Development of the South Midlands, 1450 - 1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
97. Roger Scola, Feeding the Victorian City: The Food Supply of Manchester, 1770 - 1870 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992).
98. Mark Overton and Bruce M.S. Campbell, 'Norfolk Livestock Farming, 1250-1740: A Comparative Study of Manorial Accounts and Probate Inventories,' Journal of Historical Geography, 18:4 (1992), 377-396.
99. W. M. Mathew, 'Marling in British Agriculture: A Case of Partial Identity,' Agricultural History Review, 41:2 (1993), 97 - 110.
100. Susanna Wade Martins, 'From 'Black-Face' to 'White-Face' - An Aspect of the 'Agricultural Revolution' in Norfolk,' Agricultural History Review, 41:1 (1993), 20 - 30.
101. Bruce M.S. Campbell and Mark Overton, 'A New Perspective on Medieval and Early Modern Agriculture: Six Centuries of Norfolk Farming, c.1250 - c.1850,' Past & Present, no. 141 (November 1993), pp. 38-105.
102. George R. Boyer, 'England's Two Agricultural Revolutions,' The Journal of Economic History, 53 (December 1993), 915-23. A review article based on Robert C. Allen, Enclosure and the Yeoman: The Agricultural Development of the South Midlands, 1450 -1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
103. T.M. Devine, The Transformation of Rural Scotland: Social Change and the Agrarian Economy, 1660-1815 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994).
104. Samuel J. Rogal, ed., Agriculture in Britain and America, 1660-1820: An Annotated Bibliography of the Eighteenth-Century Literature (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994).
105. John A. Chartres, 'Market Integration and Agricultural Output in Seventeenth-, Eighteenth-, and early Nineteenth-Century England,' Agricultural History Review, 43:ii (1995), 117-38.
106. E.H. Hunt and S.J. Pam, 'Essex Agriculture in the 'Golden Age', 1850-73,' Agricultural History Review, 43:ii (1995), 160-77.
** 107. Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England: The Transformation of the Agrarian Economy, 1500 - 1800, Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
* 108. Mark Overton, 'Re-establishing the English Agricultural Revolution,' Agricultural History Review, 44:1 (1996), 1-20.
* 109. Michael E. Turner, J.V. Becket, and B. Afton, 'Taking Stock: Farms, Farm Records, and Agricultural Output in England, 1700 - 1850,' Agricultural History Review, 44:1 (1996), 21-34.
110. Paul Brassley, 'Silage in Britain: The Delayed Adoption of an Innovation,' Agricultural History Review, 44:1 (1996), 63-87.
* 111. Joan Thirsk, Alternative Agriculture: A History from the Black Death to the Present Day (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
112. Michael Turner, 'Counting Sheep: Waking up to New Estimates of Livestock Numbers in England c. 1800,' Agricultural History Review, 46:ii (1998), 142-61.
** 113. Robert Allen, 'Tracking the Agricultural Revolution in England,' The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 52:2 (May 1999): 209-35.
* 114. Susanna Wade Martins and Tom Williamson, Roots of Change: Farming and the Landscape in East Anglia, c.1700 - 1870, The Agricultural History Review Supplement Series, no. 2 (Exeter: The British Agricultural History Society, 1999).
D. Agrarian Social History, I: Other Studies on Landownership, Landlords, and Tenants, in 18th- and 19th- Century Britain:
1. A.H. Johnson, The Disappearance of the Small Landowner (Oxford, 1909; reprinted with a new introduction by Joan Thirsk, 1963).
2. E. Davies, 'The Small Landowners, 1780-1832, in the Light of the Tax Assessments,' Economic History Review, 1st ser. 1 (1927). Reprinted in E.M. Carus-Wilson, ed., Essays in Economic History, Vol. I (1954), pp. 270-94.
3. J. D. Chambers, 'Enclosure and the Small Landowner,' Economic History Review, 1st ser. 10 (1940).
** 4. H.J. Habakkuk, 'English Land Ownership, 1680-1740,' Economic History Review, 1st ser. 10 (1940), 2-17.
5. H. J. Habakkuk, 'The Long Term Rate of Interest and the Price of Land in the Seventeenth Century,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 5 (1952).
* 6. H.J. Habakkuk, 'Economic Functions of Landowners in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,' Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, 6 (1953), 92-102. Reprinted in W.E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agrarian History, Vol. I (1968), pp. 187-202.
7. Joan Thirsk, English Peasant Farming (London, 1957). Covers enclosure and other agrarian changes in Lincolnshire from the 17th to 19th centuries.
8. H. G. Hunt, 'Landownership and Enclosure, 1750 - 1830,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 11 (1958-59).
9. H.J. Habakkuk, 'The English Land Market in the Eighteenth Century,' in J.S. Bromley and E. Kossman, eds., Britain and the Netherlands (London, 1960), pp. 155-80.
10. G.E. Mingay, 'The Size of Farms in the Eighteenth Century,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 14 (1961-2).
11. F.M.L. Thompson, English Landed Society in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1963).
12. G.E. Mingay, English Landed Society in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1963), Chapters 2-4, 7, 10.
13. G.E. Mingay, 'The Land Tax Assessments and the Small Landowner,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 17 (1964), 381-8.
14. John M. Martin, 'Landownership and the Land Tax Returns,' Agricultural History Review, 14 (1966).
15. F.M.L. Thompson, 'The Social Distribution of Landed Property in England since the Sixteenth Century,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 19 (1966), 505-17.
* 16. G.E. Mingay, Enclosure and the Small Farmer in the Age of the Industrial Revolution (London, 1968).
17. Christopher Clay, 'Marriage, Inheritance, and the Rise of Large Estates in England, 1660-1815,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 21 (1968), 503-18.
18. F.M.L. Thompson, 'Landownership and Economic Growth in England in the Eighteenth Century,' in E.L. Jones and S.J. Woolf, eds., Agrarian Change and Economic Development (London, 1969).
19. John Bateman, The Great Landowners of England and Wales, new edn. (Leicester, 1971).
20. B. A. Holderness, 'The English Land Market in the Eighteenth Century: The Case of Lincolnshire,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 27 (1974), 557-76.
21. Christopher Clay, 'The Price of Freehold Land in the Later Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 27 (1974).
22. B.A. Holderness, 'The English Land Market in the Eighteenth Century: The Case of Lincolnshire,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 25 (1972).
23. G.E. Mingay, The Gentry: The Rise and Fall of a Ruling Class (London, 1976), Chapters 5-6.
24. D.M. Hirst, 'The Seventeenth-Century Freeholder and the Statistician: A Case of Terminological Confusion,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 29 (1976), 306-11.
See also the following comment: F.M.L. Thompson, 'A Terminological Confusion Confounded,' p. 311.
* 25. Robert Brenner, 'Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe,' Past and Present, No. 70 (1976), 30-75.
* 26. J.V. Beckett, 'English Landownership in the Later Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: The Debate and its Problems,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 30 (1977), 567-81.
* 27. J. P. Cooper, 'In Search of Agrarian Capitalism,' Past and Present, No. 80 (Aug. 1978), 20-65. An attack on Brenner, one of many (but the one most relevant to this topic).
28. Lloyd Bonfield, 'Marriage Settlements and the `Rise of Great Estates',' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 32 (1979), 483-93.
29. H.J. Habakkuk, 'The Rise and Fall of English Landed Families, 1600-1800,' Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 29-31 (1979-81).
30. P. Horn, The Rural World, 1780 - 1850: Social Change in the English Countryside (London, 1980).
31. Ann Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981).
32. Robert Brenner, 'The Agrarian Roots of European Capitalism,' Past and Present, No. 97 (Nov. 1982), 16-113. Brenner's lengthy reply to his many critics.
33. J.R. Wordie, Estate Management in Eighteenth-Century England (London, 1982).
34. J. V. Beckett, 'The Decline of the Small Landowner in Eighteenth and Nineteenth-Century England: Some Regional Considerations,' Agricultural History Review, 30 (1982).
* 35. J.V. Beckett, 'The Pattern of Landownership in England and Wales, 1660-1880,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 37 (Feb. 1984), 1-22.
36. M. W. Beresford, Time and Place: Collected Essays (London, 1984). Especially 'Commissioners of Enclosure,' pp. 123 - 33.
37. Joan Thirsk, The Rural Economy of England: Collected Essays (London, 1984).
38. C. E. Searle, 'Custom, Class Conflict, and Agrarian Capitalism: The Cumbrian Customary Economy in the Eighteenth Century,' Past and Present, no. 110 (Feb. 1986), 106 - 33.
39. Michael Turner and D. Mills, eds., Land and Property: The English Land Tax, 1692-1832 (Gloucester, 1986).
40. David Grigg, 'Farm Size in England and Wales, from Early Victorian Times to the Present,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 179 - 90.
41. Joan Thirsk, England's Agricultural Regions and Agrarian History, 1500 - 1750, Studies in Economic and Social History series (London, 1987).
* 42. R. C. Allen, 'The Price of Freehold Land and the Interest Rate in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 41 (Feb. 1988), 33-50.
* 43. George Mingay, ed., The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. VI: 1750 - 1850 (Cambridge University Press, 1989):
a) J. B. Beckett, 'Landownership and Estate Management,' pp. 545 -639, and:
b) J. H. Porter, 'The Development of Rural Society,' pp. 836 - 937.
44. Barbara English, The Great Landowners of East Yorkshire, 1530 - 1910 (New York and London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990).
45. Avner Offer, 'Farm Tenure and Land Values in England, c. 1750 - 1950,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 44 (February 1991), 1 - 20.
46. John Habakkuk, Marriage, Debt, and the Estates System: English Landownership, 1650 - 1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
47. F.M.L. Thompson, ed., Landowners, Capitalists, and Entrepreneurs: Essays for Sir John Habakkuk (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
48. T. M. Devine, The Transformation of Rural Scotland: Social Change and the Agrarian Economy, 1660 - 1815 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994).
49. George E. Mingay, Land and Society in England, 1750 - 1980 (Harlow: Longman, 1994).
50. Negley Harte and Roland Quinault, eds., Land and Society in Britain, 1700 - 1914: Essays in Honour of F.M.L. Thompson (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1996).
E. Agrarian Social History, II: Agricultural Labourers, Rural Poverty, and the Poor Law in the 18th and 19th centuries. See also Section A, above.
* 1. F.M. Eden, The State of the Poor (London, 1797).
2. W.A. Hasbach, A History of English Agricultural Labourer (London, 1908).
** 3. J.L. and Barbara Hammond, The Village Labourer, 1760-1832 (London, 1911). Reissued New York, Harper Torchbooks, 1970, with an important new introduction by Eric Hobsbawm. New edition edited by George E. Mingay, London, 1978.
4. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, English Poor Law History, Part I: The Old Poor Law (London, 1927).
5. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, English Poor Law History, Part II: The Last Hundred Years (London, 1929).
6. H.L. Beales, 'The New Poor Law,' History, 15 (1931), reprinted in E.M. Carus-Wilson, ed., Essays in Economic History, Vol. III (London, 1962), pp. 279-87.
7. N. Gash, 'Rural Unemployment, 1815 - 34,' Economic History Review, 1st ser., 6 (1935).
8. George E. Fussell, The English Rural Labourer (London, 1949).
9. D. Roberts, 'How Cruel was the Victorian Poor Law?' Historical Journal, 6 (1963). See below Henriques (1968).
10. Mark Blaug, 'The Myth of the Old Poor Law and the Making of the New,' Journal of Economic History, 23 (1963).
11. Mark Blaug, 'The Poor Law Report Re-Examined,' Journal of Economic History, 24 (1964).
12. E.J. Hobsbawm, Labouring Men (London, 1964).
* 13. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London, 1965) Chapter 7: 'The Field Labourers', pp. 233-58.
14. J.J. and A.L. Bagley, The English Poor Law (London, 1966).
15. M. E. Rose, 'The Allowance System under the New Poor Law,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 19 (1966).
16. D. C. Barnett, 'Allotments and the Problem of Rural Poverty,' in E.L. Jones and G. E. Mingay, eds., Land, Labour, and Population in the Industrial Revolution: Essays Presented to J.D. Chambers (1967).
17. U. Henriques, 'How Cruel was the Victorian Poor Law?' Historical Journal, 11 (1968). See above, Roberts (1963).
18. J.D. Marshall, The Old Poor Law, 1795-1834, Studies in Economic History Series (London, 1968).
* 19. E.J. Hobsbawm and George Rudé, Captain Swing (London, 1969; new edn., Harmondsworth, 1973), especially Part I, pp. 23-96.
20. J.P. Huzel, 'Malthus, the Poor Law, and Population in Early Nineteenth Century England,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 22 (1969).
21. J.S. Taylor, 'The Mythology of the Old Poor Law,' The Journal of Economic History, 29 (1969).
22. J.R. Poynter, Society and Pauperism: English Ideas on Poor Relief, 1795 - 1834 (London, 1969).
23. M.E. Rose, The Relief of Poverty, 1834-1914, Studies in Economic History Series, (London, 1970).
24. Valerie Morgan, 'Agricultural Wage Rates in Late Eighteenth-Century Scotland,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 24 (1971).
25. B. Inglis, Poverty and the Industrial Revolution, 2nd edn. (London, 1972).
26. Donald N. McCloskey, 'New Perspectives on the Old Poor Law,' Explorations in Economic History, 10 (1973).
27. J.P.D. Dunbabin, ed., Rural Discontent in Nineteenth-Century Britain (London, 1974).
28. D. A. Baugh, 'The Cost of Poor Relief in South-East England, 1790 - 1834,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 28 (1975).
29. G.S.L. Tucker, 'The Old Poor Law Revisited,' Explorations in Economic History, 12 (1975).
30. J.S. Taylor, 'The Impact of Pauper Settlement, 1691 - 1834,' Past & Present, no. 73 (1976).
31. D. Fraser, ed., The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1976).
32. J.M. Martin, 'Marriage and Economic Stress in the Felden of Warwickshire during the Eighteenth Century,' Population Studies, 31 (1977).
33. A. Brundage, The Making of the New Poor Law: the Politics of Inquiry, Enactment, and Implementation, 1832-39 (London, 1978).
34. James P. Huzel, 'The Demographic Impact of the Old Poor Law: More Reflexions on Malthus,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 33 (1980), 367-381.
35. P. Horn, The Rural World, 1780 - 1850: Social Change in the English Countryside (London, 1980).
36. Osamu Saito, 'Labour Supply Behaviour of the Poor in the English Industrial Revolution,' Journal of European Economic History, 10 (1981), 633-52.
37. W. G. Armstrong, 'The Influence of Demographic Factors on the Position of the Agricultural Labourer in England and Wales, c. 1750 - 1914,' Agricultural History Review, 29 (1981).
38. K. D. M. Snell, 'Agricultural Seasonal Unemployment, the Standard of Living, and Women's Work in the South and East: 1690-1860,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 34 (1981), 407-37.
39. Ann Kussmaul, 'The Ambiguous Mobility of Farm Servants,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 34 (1981), 222-35.
40. Ann Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981).
41. K. Williams, From Pauperism to Poverty (London, 1981).
42. Peter Dunkley, The Crisis of the Old Poor Law in England, 1795 - 1834: An Interpretative Essay (New York, 1982).
43. Anne Digby, The Poor Law in Nineteenth-Century England and Wales (London, 1982).
44. Andrew Charlesworth, ed., An Atlas of Rural Protest in Britain, 1548 - 1900 (London, 1983).
45. K. D. M. Snell, Annals of the Labouring Poor: Social Change and Agrarian England, 1660 - 1900 (Cambridge, 1985).
46. George Boyer, 'An Economic Model of the English Poor Law, ca. 1780-1834,' Explorations in Economic History, 22 (April 1985), 129-67.
* 47. George Boyer, 'The Old Poor Law and the Agricultural Labor Market in Southern England: An Empirical Analysis,' The Journal of Economic History, 46 (Mar. 1986), 113-36.
48. George Boyer, 'The Poor Law, Migration, and Economic Growth,' The Journal of Economic History, 46 (1986), 419-40.
49. E. J. T. Collins, 'The Rationality of `Surplus' Agricultural Labour: Mechanization in English Agriculture in the Nineteenth Century,' Agricultural History Review, 35 (1987), 36-46.
50. Alan Kidd, 'Historians or Polemicists: How the Webbs Wrote Their History of the English Poor Laws,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 40 (August 1987), 400-17.
51. Mary MacKinnon, 'English Poor Law Policy and the Crusade Against Outrelief,' Journal of Economic History, 47 (Sept. 1987), 603-25.
* 52. George E. Mingay, ed., The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. VI: 1750 - 1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989):
(a) W. A. Armstrong, 'Labour I: Rural Population Growth, Systems of Employment, and Incomes,' pp. 641 - 728.
(b) W. A. Armstrong and J. P. Huzel, 'Labour II: Food, Shelter and Self-Help, the Poor Law, and the Position of the Labourer in Rural Society,' pp. 729 - 835.
c) J.H. Porter, 'The Development of Rural Society,' pp. 836-937.
53. J.M. Neeson, 'Parliamentary Enclosure and the Disappearance of the English Peasantry, Revisited,' in George W. Grantham and Carol Leonard, eds., Agrarian Organization in the Century of Industrialization, Supplement no. 5 of Research in Economic History, Paul Uselding general editor (London: JAI Press, 1989).
54. Jane Humphries, 'Enclosures, Common Rights, and Women: The Proletarianization of Families in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries,' Journal of Economic History, 50 (March 1990), 1 - 16.
55. Alan Armstrong, Farmworkers: A Social and Economic History, 1770 - 1980 (London: Batsford Books, 1990).
56. Reay Barry, The Last Rising of the Agricultural Labourers: Rural Life and Protest in Nineteenth-Century England, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
57. Mick Reed and Roger Wells, eds., Class, Conflict, and Protest in the English Countryside, 1700 - 1880 (London: Cass, 1990).
58. George E. Mingay, A Social History of the English Countryside (London: Routledge, 1990).
59. George R. Boyer, An Economic History of the Poor Law, 1750 - 1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
60. Alun Howkins, Reshaping Rural England: A Social History, 1850 - 1925 (London: Harper, 1991).
61. Humphrey R. Southall, 'The Tramping Artisan Revisits: Labour Mobility and Economic Distress in Early Victorian England,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 44 (May 1991), 272 - 96.
62. Robert C. Allen, Enclosure and the Yeoman: the Agricultural Development of the South Midlands, 1450 -1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
63. T. L. Richardson, 'The Agricultural Labourers' Standard of Living in Lincolnshire, 1790 - 1840: Social Protest and Public Order,' Agricultural History Review, 41:1 (1993), 1 - 18.
64. Peter M. Solar, 'Poor Relief and English Economic Development before the Industrial Revolution,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 48:1 (February 1995), 1-22.
65. Gregory Clark, Michael Huberman, and Peter H. Lindert, 'A British Food Puzzle, 1770 - 1850,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 48:2 (May 1995), 215-37.
66. Michael Turner, After the Famine: Irish Agriculture, 1850 - 1914 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
67. Jeremy Burchardt, 'Rural Social Relations, 1830-50: Opposition to Allotments for Labourers,' Agricultural History Review, 45:2 (1997), 165-75.
68. John E. Archer, "The Nineteenth-Century Allotment: Half an Acre and a Row," The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 50:1 (February 1997), 21-36.
69. Pamela Sharpe, 'The Female Labour Market in English Agriculture during the Industrial Revolution: Expansion or Contraction?', Agricultural History Review, 57:2 (1999), 161-81.
70. A.J. Gritt, 'The Census and the Servant: A Reassesment of the Decline and Distribution of Farm Service in Early Nineteenth-Century England', The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 53:1 (February 2000),84-106.
71. Sara Birtles, 'Common Land, Poor Relief and Enclosure: The Use of Manorial Resources in Fulfilling Parish Obligations, 1601-1834', Past & Present, no. 165 (November 1999), 74-106.
72. Donald Woodward, 'Early Modern Servants in Husbandry Revisited', Agricultural History Review, 48:ii (2000), 141-50.
73. John Broad, 'Housing the Rural Poor in Southern England, 1650 - 1850', Agricultural History Review, 48:ii (2000), 151-70.
74. H.R. French, 'Urban Agriculture, Commons and Commoners in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: the Case of Sudbury, Suffolk', Agricultural History Review, 48:ii (2000), 171-99.
F. More on Open Fields
1. Paul Vinogradoff, The Growth of the Manor (London, 1905).
2. Frederic Seebohm, The English Village Community Examined in its Relations to the Manorial and Tribal Systems and to the Common or Open Field System of Husbandry, 4th edn. (London, 1905).
3. H.L. Gray, English Field Systems (Cambridge, Mass. 1915).
4. E.C.K. Gonner, Common Land and Inclosure (1921; reissued with an introduction by E.L. Jones, London, 1968).
* 5. Paul Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (London, 1923), part ii: 'The Manor and the Village Community,' chapter I; 'The Open Field System and the Holdings,' pp. 223-58; chapter II, 'Rights of Common,' pp. 259-77. See also chapters V and VI.
** 6. Marc Bloch, Les caractères originaux de l'histoire rurale française, 2 vols. (Oslo, 1931; reissued Paris, 1952 and 1964); in English translation as French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics, trans. by Janet Sondheimer (Berkeley, Calif. 1966), chapter 2, pp. 35-64.
7. T.A.M. Bishop, 'Assarting and the Growth of the Open Fields,' Economic History Review, 1st ser. 6 (1935-36), 13-29; reprinted in E.M. Carus-Wilson, ed., Essays in Economic History (London, 1954), Vol. I, pp. 26-40.
8. C. S. Orwin, 'Observations on the Open Fields,' Economic History Review, 1st. ser. 8 (1937-38), 125-35.
** 9. C.S. and C.A. Orwin, The Open Fields (1938; 2nd edn. Oxford, 1954), Introduction especially (pp. 1-14), and chapters I-V, pp. 15-68, especially III, 'The Open Fields,' pp. 30-52.
* 10. M.A. Havinden, 'Agricultural Progress in Open-Field Oxfordshire,' Agricultural History Review, 9 (1961), 73-83. An important article for demonstrating that open fields did not necessarily prove to be a barrier to change, at least in early-modern England. Also in:
(a) W.E. Minchinton, ed., Essays in Agricultural History, Vol. I (1968), pp. 147-60.
(b) E.L. Jones, ed., Agriculture and Economic Growth in England, 1650-1815 (1967), pp. 66-79.
* 11. Lynn White, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford, 1962), chapter II, 'The Agricultural Revolution of the Early Middle Ages,' pp. 39-78, esp. pp. 41-57. Rather simplistic and outdated, but still interesting.
12. W. G. Hoskins and L. Dudley Stamp, The Common Lands of England and Wales (London, 1963). Chapters 1 - 4; especially chapter 1, 'Common Land and Its Origin,' pp. 3-13; and chapter 3, 'Common Land and the Peasant Economy,' pp. 44-52.
** 13. Joan Thirsk, 'The Common Fields,' Past and Present, no. 29 (Dec. 1964), 3-25. The article that initiated the still current debate.
14. W.O. Ault, Open-Field Husbandry and the Village Community: A Study of Agrarian By-Laws in Medieval England (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, new series, vol. 55, Philadelphia, 1965).
* 15. Jan Z. Titow, 'Medieval England and the Open-Field System,' Past and Present, no. 32 (1966), 86-102. The first major attack on Thirsk.
* 16. Joan Thirsk, 'The Origin of the Common Fields,' Past and Present, no. 33 (1966), 142-47. Her strong reply to Titow.
* 17. George C. Homans, 'The Explanation of English Regional Differences,' Past and Present, no. 42 (1969), 18-34. Continuing the Thirsk-Titow debate.
18. A.H.R. Baker, 'Some Terminological Problems in Studies of British Field Systems,' Agricultural History Review, 17 (1969).
19. Jerome Blum, 'The European Village as Community: Origins and Functions,' Agricultural History, 45 (1971), 158- .
20. D.N. McCloskey, 'The Enclosure of Open Fields: Preface to a Study of its Impact on the Efficiency of English Agriculture in the Eighteenth Century,' Journal of Economic History, 32 (1972), 15-35. Though chiefly pertaining to a later period, still relevant to the question of medieval common fields, particularly since McCloskey subsequently became a very major participant in this debate. See below nos.
* 21. Michael Postan, The Medieval Economy and Society: An Economic History of Britain in the Middle Ages (1972), chapter 4: 'Land Use and Technology', pp. 41-72.
22. W.O. Ault, Open-Field Farming in England (London, 1972).
23. A.R.H. Baker and R.A. Butlin, eds. Studies of the Field Systems in the British Isles (Cambridge, 1973). Studies by various authors, by regions. See in particular, chapter 14: Baker and Butlin, 'Conclusion: Problems and Perspectives,' pp. 619-56.
24. Jon Cohen and Martin Weitzman, 'A Mathematical Model of Enclosure,' in Mathematical Models in Economics, ed. J. and W. Los (Warsaw, 1974), pp. 419-31. Relevant to the subject of common fields and their economic rationale.
25. Edmund King, Peterborough Abbey, 1086-1310: A Study in the Land Market (London, 1975). Though not on the origins of the common fields, this study shows how peasant holdings could be re-arranged through purchase, sale, and transfers.
* 26. Robert A. Dodgshon, 'The Land-Holding Foundations of the Open-Field System,' Past and Present, no. 67 (May 1975), 3-29. Reprinted in T. H. Aston, ed., Landlords, Peasants and Politics in Medieval England (Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 6-32.
** 27. William N. Parker and Eric L. Jones, eds., European Peasants and Their Markets: Essays in Agrarian Economic History (Princeton, 1975). See the following essays:
* a) Richard C. Hoffmann, 'Medieval Origins of the Common Fields,' pp. 23-71.
*** b) Donald McCloskey, 'The Persistence of English Common Fields,' pp. 93-120.
c) D.N. McCloskey, 'The Economics of Enclosure: A Market Analysis,' pp. 123-60.
* d) Jon Cohen and Martin Weitzman, 'Enclosure and Depopulation: a Marxian Analysis,' pp. 161-76. See also the following:
28. Jon Cohen and Martin Weitzman, 'A Marxian Model of Enclosures,' Journal of Development Economics, 1 (1975), 287-336. Also relevant to the economics of common fields.
29. Stefano Fenoaltea, 'The Rise and Fall of a Theoretical Model: the Manorial System;' and also, 'Authority, Efficiency, and Agriculture Organization in Medieval England and Beyond,' both in Journal of Economic History, 25 (1975), 386-409, and 693-718, respectively.
** 30. Donald N. McCloskey, 'English Open Fields as Behavior Towards Risk,' Research in Economic History, 1 (1976), 124-71.
31. Stefano Fenoaltea, 'On a Marxian Model of Enclosures,' Journal of Development Economics, 3 (1976), 195-98. An attack on Cohen and Weitzmann, with their reply:
Jon Cohen and Martin Weitzman, 'Reply to Fenoaltea,' pp. 199-200.
32. Stefano Fenoaltea, 'Risk, Transactions Costs, and the Organization of Medieval Agriculture,' Explorations in Economic History, 13 (April 1976), 129-51. Challenges McCloskey's thesis in nos. 27 and 30.
* 33. Donald McCloskey, 'Fenoaltea on Open Fields: A Reply,' Explorations in Economic History, 14 (Oct. 1977), 405-10.
34. J.A. Yelling, Common Field and Enclosure in England, 1450-1850 (London, 1977). Important survey; but arranged geographically rather than chronologically.
* 35. Michael Mazur, 'The Dispersion of Holdings in the Open Fields: An Interpretation in Terms of Property Rights,' Journal of European Economic History, 6 (1977), 461-71. See no. 36 below.
* 36. Donald McCloskey, 'Scattering in Open Fields: a Comment,' and
Michael Mazur, 'Scattering in Open Fields: A Reply,' both in
Journal of European Economic History, 9 (1980), 209-14, and 215-18, respectively.
37. Bruce M. Campbell, 'Population Change and the Genesis of Common Fields on a Norfolk Manor,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 33 (1980), 174-92.
38. Bruce M. Campbell, 'The Regional Uniqueness of English Field-Systems: Some Evidence from Eastern Norfolk,' Agricultural History Review, 9 (1980),
* 39. Carl J. Dahlman, The Open Field System and Beyond: A Property Rights Analysis of an Economic Institution (Cambridge, 1980). A very major recent contribution to this debate, providing a viable economic alternative to the McCloskey model.
* 40. Trevor Rowley, ed., The Origins of Open Field Agriculture (Totawa, N.J., 1981). Collected studies. See especially:
a) David Hall, 'The Origins of Open-field Agriculture: The Archaeological Fieldwork Evidence,' pp. 22-38.
b) H. S. A. Fox, 'Approaches to the Adoption of the Midland System,' pp. 64 - 111.
** c) Bruce Campbell, 'Commonfield Origins: The Regional Dimension,' pp. 112-29. Very important contribution, linking communal open fields to manorialism.
d) Robert Dodgshon, 'The Interpretation of Subdivided Fields: A Study in Private or Communal Interests?' pp. 130-44.
e) Victor Skipp, 'The Evolution of Settlement and Open-field Topography in North Arden down to 1300,' pp. 162-83.
** 41. J.A. Yelling, 'Rationality in Common Fields,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 35 (1982), 409-15. Very important critique of both the McCloskey and Dahlman models.
* 42. Donald McCloskey, 'Corn at Interest: The Extent and Cost of Grain Storage in Medieval England,' American Economic Review, 74 (1984), 174 - 87.
43. Richard M. Smith, 'Families and Their Land in an Area of Partible Inheritance: Redgrave, Suffolk, 1260-1320,' in R. M. Smith, ed. Land, Kinship and Life-cycle (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 135-96.
44. Alan Nash, 'The Size of Open Field Strips: A Reinterpretation,' The Agricultural History Review, 33 (1985), 32-40.
45. H. S. A. Fox, 'The Alleged Transformation from Two-field to Three-field Systems in Medieval England,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 39 (Nov. 1986), 526-48.
* 46. Donald McCloskey, 'Open Fields of England: Rent, Risk, and the Rate of Interest, 1300 - 1815,' in David W. Galenson, ed., Markets in History: Economic Studies of the Past (Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 5 - 51. A further refinement of the McCloskey model.
47. Mark Bailey, 'Sand into Gold: The Evolution of the Foldcourse System in West Suffolk, 1200 - 1600,' The Agricultural History Review, 38 (1990), 40 - 57.
48. John Komlos and Richard Landes, 'Anachronistic Economics: Grain Storage in Medieval England,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 44 (February 1991), 36 - 45. An attack on McCloskey. See the following reply and rejoinder.
49. Donald N. McCloskey, 'Conditional Economic History: A Reply to Komlos and Landes;' and John Komlos and Richard Landes, 'Alice to the Red Queen: Imperious Econometrics,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 44 (February 1991), 128 - 136.
* 50. Donald N. McCloskey, 'The Prudent Peasant: New Findings on Open Fields,' Journal of Economic History, 51 (June 1991), 343-55. McCloskey again!
51. M. M. Cosgel, 'Risk Sharing in Medieval Agriculture,' Journal of European Economic History, 21: (Spring 1992), 99 - 110.
52. Eric Kerridge, The Common Fields of England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992). A survey that has not pleased all agrarian historians.
* 53. Rosemary L. Hopcroft, 'The Origins of Regular Open-Field Systems in Pre-Industrial Europe,' Journal of European Economic History, 23:3 (Winter 1994), 563-80.
54. Barry Harrison, 'Field Systems and Demesne Farming on the Wiltshire Estates of Saint Swithun's Priory, Winchester, 1248 - 1340,' Agricultural History Review, 43:i (1995), 1-18.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION:
1. Did Enclosures necessarily mean displacement and 'depopulation' of small farmers -- both tenants and smallholder owner-occupiers? Did Enclosures and the subsequent agrarian changes, from ca. 1750 to ca. 1850, mean an absolute or relative decrease in the numbers of people engaged in the agricultural sector?
2. Agriculture and the Labour Supply: what became of those small farmers who were dispossessed, displaced by Enclosures and subsequent agrarian changes, ca. 1750 - ca. 1850? Consider in terms of the following questions:
(a) Did Enclosures create an industrial proletariat or an agricultural proletariat, or a mixture of the two?
(b) If the absolute number of those engaged in the agricultural sector did not fall (before 1850), was the chief (social) significance of Enclosures the change in property rights and social ties to the land? Did many of those, formerly tenants in open-field farming or small holder owner-occupiers, become hired field-hands on large, enclosed commercial farms?
(c) How many of those small farmers dispossessed, bought out, or otherwise encouraged to leave their holdings became a source of labour for urban industries -- or rural industries? Were those industrial workers of agrarian origins driven into or attracted into their new industrial employment? Were they compelled to become industrial workers by having their holdings expropriated; or were many poor farmers and field-hands lured into industrial employment by the prospect of higher wages?
(d) Where did the industries, rural and urban, of the Industrial Revolution era secure their labour supplies? From displaced farmers, the victims of Enclosure; from the younger sons of continuing farmers, younger sons no longer needed on the land; from demographic growth -- from natural population increases, especially in the urban areas themselves?
3. What was the relationship between demographic growth, Enclosures and agrarian changes (agricultural growth), and industrial growth--urban industrialization in particular, from ca. 1750 to ca. 1850?
4. In the context of British economic development from ca. 1750 to ca. 1850, discuss the possible economic and social 'benefits and costs' of Enclosures for each of the following categories:
(a) landlords and their tenants-in-chief;
(b) freeholder or smallholder 'owner-occupiers';
(c) freeholder tenants: both those who hired labour, and those who depended chiefly on the labour of their own family;
(d) leaseholder tenants;
(e) copyholders: by inheritance, for lives (one to three lives), at will;
(f) cottars or cottagers;
(g) hired agricultural labourers, field hands;
(h) agricultural 'servants', hired on annual contracts and living and working as part of the farm family.
5. In the same context as the above question, discuss the changing economic and social 'benefits and costs' of the traditional open-field or common-field system of farming, especially for the peasant tenants of the manorial, or formerly manorial villages. Why did this system of landholding and farming persist for so long?
6. Did Parliamentary enclosures, ca. 1750 - ca. 1830, protect the rights of the tenants, any property rights of the tenants, any property rights at all? Who really paid for the costs of such enclosures (including the Enclosure Commissions' costs)?
7. What were the prime motives for and causes of the 18th century Enclosures? Discuss in terms of the following theories, comparing, contrasting, and if possible reconciling some of their elements:
(a) the Marxian theories of expropriation: to capture the economic rent on land; to transfer income from the peasantry (smallholders and tenant farmers) to the landlords.
(b) the demographic theories: a reorganization of landholdings and farming methods necessitated by the growing pressures of population--both of people and livestock: demographic pressures forcing a more rational allocation of resources in agriculture (land, labour, capital).
(c) the market theories: that a combination of rising agricultural prices [see demographic theories in b], improved communications and transportation facilities, urbanization, and economic development in general promoted commercialized farming, which in turn induced Enclosures and agricultural improvements. Or more simply, and related to both (a) and (b), rising prices augmented the economic rent on existing productive lands and so encouraged landlords to enclose to capture such rising rents.
(d) theories focusing on technology and productivity: that more enlightened, better educated landlords enclosed open- field lands and wastelands, etc. in order to implement more advanced farming techniques, placing land under single management (and thus necessarily enclosed) to ensure such implementation and 'progress.'
Are all these theories necessarily exclusive or inconsistent with each other? In your discussion, try to determine (i.e. explain) both the timing and the location of the enclosures.
8. Compare and contrast both the economic and social consequences of enclosures that involved:
(a) enclosures of pasture and woodlands of the village 'commons'
(b) enclosures of wastelands, or reclamations of fens and wastes
(c) engrossing of the arable strips in the open- fields
(d) enclosures principally for pastoral (livestock) farming or those for arable primarily, or those for 'convertible husbandry' (mixed farming).
9. Explain the regional differences in English enclosures: in the Midlands, in the south-west, the south-east, and the North; and the differences relating to England's 'scarp and vale' topography.
10. In what respects, both in terms of causes and of the consequences (economic and social), did the Enclosures of the Industrial Revolution era (ca. 1750-1830) resemble and/or differ from the earlier enclosures, especially those of the Tudor-Stuart era? How significant were the enclosures of the 'in between' period of the 17th century: how did they differ from the earlier and later enclosures in terms of causes and consequences (and forms). How much land remained to be enclosed by 1750?
11. Were enclosures of the Industrial Revolution era and the associated technical changes, where evident and relevant, designed more to economize on land or on labour? Over time, what changes occurred in the land:labour ratio? Explain those changes and their consequences.
12. Were Enclosures necessary -- a necessary co-requisite for modern industrialization, specifically in Great Britain?
Table 1.
THE EFFECTS OF CHANGING RELATIVE AREAS OF GRASS (LIVESTOCK-PASTURE) AND ARABLE (GRAIN CROPS) ON THE OUTPUT OF A 100-ACRE FARM: IN BUSHELS PER ACRE (WITH LIVESTOCK OUTPUT EQUIVALENTS)
Assumption: Farm Operating on a Three-Field System with 2/3 in Crops and 1/3 Fallow (Uncultivated, Land at Rest) each Year
| Grass
Area in Acres |
Grain Area in Acres | Fallow Area (at Rest):
Acres |
Manure
Tons per Acre Arable |
Grain Yield:
Bu. per Acre |
Total Grain Output Bu. | Stock Output in Equiv Bu.* | TOTAL OUT-PUT IN
BU. |
| 100 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1,000 | 1,000 | |||
| 80 | 13.3 | 6.7 | >10.0 | 27.5 | 366 | 800 | 1,166 |
| 77 | 15.3 | 7.7 | 10.0 | 27.5 | 421 | 770 | 1,191 |
| 60 | 26.7 | 13.3 | 4.5 | 16.5 | 441 | 600 | 1,041 |
| 40 | 40.0 | 20.0 | 2.0 | 11.5 | 460 | 400 | 860 |
| 20 | 53.3 | 26.7 | 0.7 | 8.9 | 474 | 200 | 674 |
| 0 | 66.7 | 33.3 | 0.0 | 7.5 | 500 | 0 | 500 |
* Assumption: That the output of livestock products is equivalent to 10 bushels of grain per acre.
Source: Robert Shiel, 'Improving Soil Fertility in the Pre-Fertiliser Era,' in Bruce M. S. Campbell and Mark Overton, eds., Land, Labour, and Livestock: Historical Studies in European Agricultural Productivity (Manchester and New York, 1991), p. 71.
Table 2.
THE BALTIC AND ENGLISH GRAIN EXPORT TRADES AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPORTS IN QUARTERS (OF 8 BUSHELS)* 1600-49 TO 1700-49
| PERIOD | BALTIC** | ENGLAND | TOTAL |
| 1600-59 | 719,250 | ? | ? |
| 1650-99 | 585,900 | 26,250 | 612,150 |
| 1700-49 | 325,500 | 453,600 | 779,100 |
* 1 Quarter = 8 bushels = 64 gallons of grain = 480 lb. (1 bu. = 60 lb.; 6 x 80 = 480 lb.)
* about 80% on the seaborne Baltic grain exports, on average, was carried in Dutch ships (a higher proportion in the earlier than in the later periods).
Table 3.
AVERAGE ANNUAL ENGLISH GRAIN EXPORTS IN QUARTERS (OF 8 BUSHELS), 1700-09 TO 1760-64
| DECADE | GRAIN EXPORTS
IN QUARTERS |
| 1700-09 | 283,000 |
| 1710-19 | 369,000 |
| 1720-29 | 426,000 |
| 1730-39 | 531,000 |
| 1740-49 | 661,000 |
| 1750-59 | 655,000 |
| 1760-64 | 746,000 |
Table 4. MODEL OF A THREE-COURSE CROP ROTATION SYSTEM: ARABLE LANDS
| Year | FIELDS: A | FIELDS: B | FIELDS: C |
| I | FALL
(Winter)
Wheat and/or Rye |
SPRING
(Summer)
Oats, Barley Legumes (Peas and Beans) |
FALLOW
Resting Uncultivated
(Double Ploughed) Livestock graze on natural grasses |
| II | SPRING | FALLOW | FALL |
| III | FALLOW | FALL | SPRING |
Table 5. CONVERTIBLE HUSBANDRY ('UP AND DOWN' FARMING)
| SECTION I: PASTURE LANDS FOR GRAZING LIVESTOCK
1) These lands, comprising about half of the farm holdings, are 'laid down to grass' for about five years, for pasturing livestock (sheep and/or cattle), allowing these lands to regain their fertility and store up large stocks of nitrogen. If the livestock are also 'stall-fed' -- i.e. from fodder crops outside the pasture -- their manure will add net amounts of nitrogen compounds to the soil
2) After five or so years, these pasture lands are 'ploughed up for arable,' to follow the five-course crop system indicated below for Section II (the other half of the farm holdings). After another five years, these lands, now arable, are again 'laid down to grass' to serve as pasture lands for the following five years. |
| SECTION II: THE ARABLE FIELDS (with no fallow): comprising the other half. ARABLE FIELD A: WINTER GRAINS: Wheat and/or Rye grains |
| ARABLE FIELD B: THE NEW LEGUMES: Clover, Alfalfa (Lucerne), and Sainfoin grasses (high nitrogen-fixing properties), as animal fodder crops |
| ARABLE FIELD C: PULSES: Beans and Peas (low in nitrogen-fixing properties, for human consumption) |
| ARABLE FIELD D: SUMMER GRAINS: Barley (for beer) and Oats (to feed both humans and horses) |
| ARABLE FIELD E: OTHER NEW CROPS: Coleseed and Rapeseed (for both industrial oils and animal fodder); or Turnips (chiefly for animal fodder) |
'New' Crops Grown Under Multiple Crop Rotations in Convertible Husbandry (or in 'Norfolk Farming'): not new, but much more widely diffused in the 17th & 18th centuries.
Clover, Alfalfa (Lucerne), Sainfoin, Coleseed, Rapeseed, Flax, Buckwheat, Hops, Turnips
Nitrogen Fixing Properties of Various Legumes in kg per hectare (2.47 acres)
Beans and Peas (Pulses) 30 kg per hectare
Clover 100 kg per hectare
Sainfoin 170 kg per hectare
Alfalfa (Lucerne) 225 kg per hectare
Table 6.
BRITISH WHEAT PRICES: DECENNIAL AVERAGES OF PRICES AND PRICE-RELATIVES (INDICES) OF WHEAT AT ETON COLLEGE, IN SHILLINGS PER QUARTER, FROM 1600 TO 1819
Mean of 1700 - 09 = 100
| DECADE | PRICE | INDEX
1700-09 = 100 |
| 1600-09 | 30.80 | 91.8 |
| 1610-19 | 34.20 | 101.9 |
| 1620-29 | 35.05 | 104.5 |
| 1630-39 | 44.74 | 133.4 |
| 1640-49 | 49.74 | 147.6 |
| 1650-59 | 40.29 | 120.1 |
| 1660-69 | 41.19 | 122.8 |
| 1670-79 | 39.44 | 117.6 |
| 1680-89 | 31.37 | 93.5 |
| 1690-99 | 44.92 | 133.9 |
| 1700-09 | 33.55 | 100.0 |
| 1710-19 | 37.22 | 110.9 |
| 1720-29 | 33.92 | 101.1 |
| 1730-39 | 29.09 | 86.7 |
| 1740-49 | 28.27 | 84.3 |
| 1750-59 | 34.39 | 102.5 |
| 1760-69 | 37.90 | 113.0 |
| 1770-79 | 44.43 | 132.4 |
| 1780-89 | 45.97 | 137.0 |
| 1790-99 | 58.70 | 175.0 |
| 1800-09 | 80.73 | 240.6 |
| 1810-19 | 89.03 | 265.4 |
* 1 quarter of wheat = 8 bushels = 64 gallons.
Source: Price data supplied by Lord William Beveridge and published in B. R. Mitchell and Phyllis Deane, eds., Abstract of British Historical Statistics (London, 1962), calculated from tables in pp. 48-87.
Table 7.
OUTPUTS OF PRINCIPAL AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES, 1700 - 1850
in Millions of Units (Bushels and Pounds)
| COMMODITIES | Units | 1700 | 1750 | 1800 | 1850 | % Rise |
| Grains and pulses | bushel | 65 | 88 | 131 | 181 | 178.46 |
| Meat | lb. | 370 | 665 | 888 | 1356 | 266.48 |
| Wool | lb. | 40 | 60 | 90 | 120 | 200.00 |
| Cheese | lb. | 61 | 84 | 1122 | 157 | 157.38 |
| Volume in 1815 Prices (£ million) | ||||||
| Grains/potatoes | £mill | 19 | 25 | 37 | 56 | 194.74 |
| Livestock products | £mill | 21 | 34 | 512 | 79 | 276.19 |
| TOTAL | £mill | 40 | 59 | 88 | 135 | 237.50 |
Source: Robert Allen, 'Agriculture During the Industrial Revolution,' in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., Economic History of Britain Since 1700, Vol. I: 1700 - 1860, 2nd edition (Cambridge, 1994), Table 5.1, p. 102.
Table 8.
UTILIZATION OF ENGLISH and WELSH LANDS, 1700 - 1850
in millions of acres
| LAND TYPE | in 1700 | in 1800 | in 1850 | Percentage Change |
| Arable | 11.00 | 11.60 | 14.60 | 32.72 |
| Pasture/Meadow | 10.00 | 17.50 | 16.00 | 14.40 |
| Woodlands | 3.00 | 1.60 | 1.50 | -50.00 |
| Wastelands/forests | 13.00 | 6.50 | 3.00 | -76.92 |
| TOTAL | 38.00 | 38.50 | 37.30 | -1.84 |
| TOTAL AGRICULTURAL | 34.00 | 35.60 | 33.60 | -1.18 |
| INDEX OF LAND INPUT | 1.00 | 1.35 | 1.37 | 37.00 |
Source: Robert Allen, 'Agriculture During the Industrial Revolution,' in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., Economic History of Britain Since 1700, Vol. I: 1700 - 1860, 2nd edition (Cambridge, 1994), Table 5.2, p. 104.
Table 9.
EMPLOYMENT IN ENGLISH/WELSH AGRICULTURE, 1700 - 1851, in thousands
| Category | 1700 | 1800 | 1851 | % Change |
| Men | 595 | 628 | 971 | 63.19 |
| Women | 505 | 426 | 409 | -19.00 |
| Boys | 433 | 351 | 144 | -66.74 |
| TOTAL | 1533 | 1405 | 1524 | 0.59 |
| WEIGHTED INDEX OF LABOUR INPUT | 100 | 95 | 116 | 16.00 |
Source: Robert Allen, 'Agriculture During the Industrial Revolution,' in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., Economic History of Britain Since 1700, Vol. I: 1700 - 1860, 2nd edition (Cambridge, 1994), Table 5.3, P. 107.
Table 10.
CAPITAL INVESTED IN ENGLISH & WELSH AGRICULTURE
in millions of pounds sterling of 1851-60 values
| INVESTORS | 1700 | % | 1750 | % | 1800 | % | 1850 | % | %
Diff-erence 1850/1700 |
| LANDLORDS
Structures Roads, Fences, Enclosures |
112 | 61 | 114 | 58 | 143 | 59 | 232 | 66 | 107% |
| TENANTS
Implements Farm Horses Other Livestock |
102041 | 82053 | 101871 | 142285 | |||||
| TENANTS:
Sub-total |
71 | 39 | 81 | 42 | 99 | 41 | 121 | 34 | 70% |
| TOTAL INVESTED | 183 | 100 | 195 | 100 | 242 | 100 | 353 | 100 | 93% |
Source: Robert Allen, 'Agriculture During the Industrial Revolution,' in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., Economic History of Britain Since 1700, Vol. I: 1700 - 1860, 2nd edition (Cambridge, 1994), Table 5.4, p. 109.
Table 11.
UTILIZATION OF THE ARABLE LANDS: CROPS AND FALLOW, 1700 - 1850
in millions of acres
| Crops | 1700 | 1750 | 1800 | 1850 | % Change |
| Wheat | 1.4 | 1.8 | 2.5 | 3.6 | 157.1 |
| Rye | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.1 | -88.9 |
| Barley | 1.9 | 1.4 | 1.3 | 1.5 | -21.1 |
| Oats | 1.2 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 66.7 |
| Beans/Peas | 1.3 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.0 | -23.1 |
| Turnips | 0.4 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 2.0 | 400.0 |
| Potatoes | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 300.0 |
| Clover | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 2.2 | 340.0 |
| Fallow | 3.3 | 2.5 | 1.5 | 1.8 | -45.5 |
| TOTAL | 11.0 | 11.4 | 11.6 | 14.6 | 32.7 |
Source: Robert Allen, 'Agriculture During the Industrial Revolution,' in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., Economic History of Britain Since 1700, Vol. I: 1700 - 1860, 2nd edition (Cambridge, 1994), Table 5.6, p. 112.
Table 12.
CROP YIELDS IN BUSHELS PER ACRE, 1700 TO 1850
| CROPS | 1700 | 1750 | 1800 | 1850 | % Change |
| Wheat | 16.0 | 18.0 | 21.5 | 28.0 | 78.1 |
| Rye | 17.0 | 18.0 | 26.0 | 28.0 | 64.7 |
| Barley | 23.0 | 25.0 | 30.0 | 36.5 | 58.9 |
| Oats | 24.0 | 28.0 | 35.0 | 40.0 | 66.7 |
| Beans/Peas | 20.0 | 28.0 | 28.0 | 30.0 | 50.0 |
Source: Robert Allen, 'Agriculture During the Industrial Revolution,' in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey, eds., Economic History of Britain Since 1700, Vol. I: 1700 - 1860, 2nd edition (Cambridge, 1994), Table 5.7, p. 112.
Table 13.
ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT AND PRODUCTIVITY
1700 = 100
| 1300 | 1600 | 1700 | 1750 | 1800 | 1850 | |
| OUTPUT | ||||||
| Population Method | 80 | 100 | 121 | 159 | 272 | |
| Volume Method | 100 | 127 | 191 | 285 | ||
| Demand Method | 100 | 143 | 172 | 244 | ||
| AREA | ||||||
| Arable Area | 100 | 128 | 170 | |||
| Sown Arable | 100 | 135 | 199 | |||
| Meadow and Pasture | 100 | 147 | 103 | |||
| Total Area | 100 | 138 | 132 | |||
| LAND PRODUCTIVITY | ||||||
| By population | 100 | 115 | 207 | |||
| By Volume | 100 | 138 | 216 | |||
| Crop Productivity* | 3.05 | 6.73 | ||||
| Livestock Productivity* | 1.04 | 6.56 | ||||
| Wheat Yields # | 79 | 72 | 100 | 123 | 136 | 180 |
| Cereal Yields + | 115 | 92 | 100 | 135 | 158 | 250 |
| LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY | ||||||
| By Population | 77 | 100 | 126 | 141 | 197 | |
| By Volume of Output | 100 | 134 | 170 | 206 |
* Estimates of Gregory Clark (1993) in terms of bushels of wheat.
# Hampshire, Herefordshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk; but 1300 for Norfolk, Hampshire only.
+ For Norfolk and Suffolk only
Source: Mark Overton, 'Re-establishing the English Agricultural Revolution,' Agricultural History Review, 44:1 (1996), 6.
Table 14.
GRAIN AND PULSE YIELDS PER ACRE IN ENGLAND,
c. 1450 TO CA. 1800: IN BUSHELS per ACRE
| CROPS | OPEN
ca. 1450 |
OPEN
ca. 1800 |
ENCLOSED
ca. 1800 |
Per cent
Gain by Enclosure |
| WHEAT | 10.7 | 18.6 | 22.1 | 18.8% |
| BARLEY | 16.8 | 26.3 | 32.1 | 22.1% |
| OATS | 11.7 | 30.0 | 38.5 | 28.3% |
| BEANS/PEAS | 10.0 | 20.4 | 22.9 | 12.3% |
Source:
Robert C. Allen, 'The Growth of Labor Productivity in Early Modern English Agriculture,' Explorations in Economic History, 25 (April 1988), 117-46.
Table 15.
ENGLISH LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN GRAIN FARMING, 1600 - 1800
| Category of
Productivity |
1600
Open |
1700
Open |
1800
Open |
1800
Enclosed |
| Output per Acre
in lb. |
2.55 | 3.49 | 3.49 | 3.92 |
| Number of Workers
per Acre |
1.24 | 1.17 | 0.91 | 0.91 |
| Output per Worker
in lb. |
2.05 | 2.97 | 3.83 | 4.3 |
| Index of Labour
Productivity
1600 = 1.00 |
1 | 1.45 | 1.87 | 2.1 |
Source:
Robert C. Allen, 'The Growth of Labor Productivity in Early Modern English Agriculture,' Explorations in Economic History, 25 (April 1988), 117-46.
|
THE RICARDO MODEL OF ECONOMIC RENT |
|||||||||
| Prices and Costs (Y axis) | |||||||||
| Economic Rent | |||||||||
| PRODUCTION COSTS: PER BUSHEL OF GRAIN | |||||||||
UNITS OF LAND ADDED TO PRODUCTION (X axis)
Table 1.
British Wheat Prices: Decennial Averages of Prices and Price-Relatives (Indices) of Wheat at Eton College, in shillings per quarter, from 1600 to 1819
Mean of 1700 - 09 = 100
| DECADE | PRICE | INDEX
1700-09 = 100 |
| 1600-09 | 30.80 | 91.8 |
| 1610-19 | 34.20 | 101.9 |
| 1620-29 | 35.05 | 104.5 |
| 1630-39 | 44.74 | 133.4 |
| 1640-49 | 49.74 | 147.6 |
| 1650-59 | 40.29 | 120.1 |
| 1660-69 | 41.19 | 122.8 |
| 1670-79 | 39.44 | 117.6 |
| 1680-89 | 31.37 | 93.5 |
| 1690-99 | 44.92 | 133.9 |
| 1700-09 | 33.55 | 100.0 |
| 1710-19 | 37.22 | 110.9 |
| 1720-29 | 33.92 | 101.1 |
| 1730-39 | 29.09 | 86.7 |
| 1740-49 | 28.27 | 84.3 |
| 1750-59 | 34.39 | 102.5 |
| 1760-69 | 37.90 | 113.0 |
| 1770-79 | 44.43 | 132.4 |
| 1780-89 | 45.97 | 137.0 |
| 1790-99 | 58.70 | 175.0 |
| 1800-09 | 80.73 | 240.6 |
| 1810-19 | 89.03 | 265.4 |
* 1 quarter of wheat = 8 bushels = 64 gallons.
Source: Price data supplied by Lord William Beveridge and published in B. R. Mitchell and Phyllis Deane, eds., Abstract of British Historical Statistics (London, 1962), calculated from tables in pp. 48-87.
Table 2.
ENGLISH AGRICULTURE IN 1801: Crop Yields in 116 Open-Field and Enclosed- Field Parishes
Mean Yields in Bushels per Acre Over 116 English Parishes
| CROP | OPEN FIELD YIELD
in bushels |
ENCLOSED FIELD YIELD
in bushels |
PERCENTAGE DIFFERENCE |
| WHEAT | 18.2 | 23.0 | +26.4% |
| BARLEY | 25.2 | 30.6 | +21.4% |
| OATS | 27.8 | 34.9 | +25.5% |
Table 3.
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY: Percentage Advantage in Productivity for Selected Crops of Enclosed Fields Over Open Fields, in 1801
| CROP | SOUTH | EAST | NORTH | WEST |
| WHEAT | 45% | 30% | 21% | 24% |
| BARLEY | 1% | 40% | 16% | 21% |
| OATS | 8% | 65% | 2% | 37% |
Sources: Michael Turner, 'Agricultural Productivity in England in the Eighteenth Century: Evidence from Crop Yields,' Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 35 (1982), 389-510.
Michael Turner, 'English Open Fields and Enclosures: Retardation or Productivity Improvements?' Journal of Economic History, 46 (Sept. 1986), 669 - 92.
Table 4.
English Labour Productivity in Grain Farming, 1600 - 1800
| Category of
Productivity |
1600
Open |
1700
Open |
1800
Open |
1800
Enclosed |
| Output per Acre
in lb. |
2.55 | 3.49 | 3.49 | 3.92 |
| Number of Workers
per Acre |
1.24 | 1.17 | 0.91 | 0.91 |
| Output per Worker
in lb. |
2.05 | 2.97 | 3.83 | 4.30 |
| Index of Labour
Productivity 1600 = 1.00 |
1.00 | 1.45 | 1.87 | 2.10 |
Source: Robert C. Allen, 'The Growth of Labor Productivity in Early Modern English Agriculture,' Explorations in Economic History, 25 (April 1988), 117-46.
1. Note: their attack on some old, traditional views linking the Tudor enclosures with the cloth trade boom of the later 15th and 16th centuries is seriously undermined by two critical faults: an unrepresentative series of wool prices (for the bishopric of Durham, unrelated to the areas enclosed in the Midlands) and by a faulty econometric model.